WALES

Wales is, in effect, a creation of England. When the Romans left, the Celts had the whole of Britain to themselves. Of course they not only quarrelled with each other but also invited over the Anglo-Saxons, who soon occupied England. They split their rivals into four groups geographically, whom they called the North, Mid-, West and South Welsh (Cumberland, Wales, West Country and Brittany), wealh being their word for foreigner or slave. The Welsh referred to themselves as a whole as cymry meaning comrades, which is why their word for the country today is Cymru (say 'goomri'). Be aware that many signs are in both English and Welsh, and are thus confusing.

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The English never seriously tried to conquer Wales until the Norman Conquest (1066). Then King William I initiated the policy of Marcher (border) Barons. These were some of his nastiest, most ruthless lords who were given narrow strips of land next to the Welsh border, and told to get on with conquering their neighbours. The English barons soon overran the weaker kingdoms of the east and south, but the stronger north and west kingdoms initially held on. This division continued until Edward I conquered the country in 1284 and divided it into the more English areas of the long-conquered east and south, and the areas placed under his direct rule in the north and west. The latter area was called 'the Principality', a term now commonly used for the whole country. Edward's son, the ill-starred future Edward II) became first Prince of Wales, a title held ever since by the heir to the English throne. It is a reflection of how little things change that, when Wales voted narrowly for its own assembly in 1998, the division of the map between areas for and against was almost identical to Edward's map of direct rule and 'free' areas over 700 years before!

Like Scotland, Wales has its own nationalist political party, its own fringe terrorist group and so on. Sheep outnumber people by 20-1, and the weather is ... interesting. If you're fond of rain, you will find it very enjoyable. Excluding Monmouthshire, properly covered elsewhere, Wales falls roughly into five areas. These are the East, North-East, South, North-West and Pembrokeshire.

East Wales (Brecknock, Radnor and Montgomery) is the English side of the country. Beautiful rolling hills and small market towns, it's an area foolishly ignored by most tourists. The people are friendly, and the area is full to overflowing with history.

North-East Wales (Denbigh and Flint) is a more industrialized version of East Wales, being closer to the industrial north-west of England. Some countryside and history, but the seaside resorts are incredibly tacky. It is also home to the most vicious police force in the country, which in 2004 prosecuted a driver for going 1 m.p.h. over the speed limit. Avoid this area.

Pembrokeshire, the south-eastern tip of Wales, is an odd mix. Roughly speaking the northern bit of the county is Welsh-speaking and the Southern English-speaking. (Welsh is an official language and is on the increase, but unfortunately this has led some militants to force towns and villages to change their names to the Welsh version against the wishes of the people). The county is a strange mix of industrial, traditional seaside and narrow winding country roads. As elsewhere, the Welsh-speaking population reserve their hostility for the English; American tourists (and their wallets) can expect a warm welcome in the Preseli hillsides, where the stones for Stonehenge came from.

South Wales (Glamorgan and Carmarthen) is an area once heavily-industrialized, and the scars of the past can still be seen. The Valleys, which stretch into Monmouthshire, are like nothing elsewhere in the country, and possess a sort of haunting beauty. The Welsh economy is actually currently doing very well, although the Welsh don't like to brag about it. It might stop all those handouts from London.

The North-West (Merioneth, Caernarfon, Anglesey, Cardigan) is the most Welsh area of Wales, where the language is at its strongest. This mountainous area (Wales' highest mountain, Snowdon, is here) was the seat of the ancient kingdom of Gwynedd, last of the many Welsh kingdoms to hold out against the English. As such it holds many of the 13th-century castles built by Edward I to keep the Welsh down. It is also the home to the Snowdonia National Park, and Wales' two most famous narrow-gauge steam railways, the Talyllyn and the Ffestiniog.

Mind the sheep!