It is easy to forget, raised as we are on tales of predominantly British and European naval history, that the peoples of China and Korea have a rich naval history of their own. Whole towns and cities existed in the littorals of the South China Seas which consisted in the main of moored boats and ships, their populations using boats as we use cars today. Coastal warlords raised navies rather than armies, and fleets of fanatical raiders scoured the oceans.

The status quo existed for centuries until European traders appeared on the scene, initially in the form of the trader captains, soon to be followed by adventurers, pirates and warships of the major European powers. Conflict between East and West was inevitable, and resulted in some particularly bloody coastal campaigns, some better known than others. The culmination, of course, was the Opium Wars of the 1839-42, a campaign still largely fought with sailing warships (although steam was to make its appearance), but throughout the period known to wargamers as the age of sail the characteristic Chinese warships were fighting it out with their more familiar European counterparts.

Chinese Ships

Naval development in Asia followed a different course to that in Europe and the Americas. The most noticeable difference was in size. Few, if any Asian warships even came close to the ships of the line of the major powers. And for good reason, since the Asian ships were designed specifically for the environment in which they operated, namely the bays, shallows, rivers and canals of China’s coast. The need to navigate in confined waters of the major rivers such as the Yangste was a prime consideration to Chinese naval architects, whose ships needed to penetrate hundreds of miles upstream to the cities of the Chinese interior.

The sails used by Chinese vessels developed along different lines to their European counterparts. Nearly everyone is familiar with the square lug sails of the traditional ‘Junk’. These were battened with bamboo and hung from a yardarm two thirds of the way up the ships mast. The bamboo battens kept the sails rigid even in high winds and allowed the ships to tack at extremely sharp angles. They were quite damage resistant, and removed the need for ratlines since sailors could climb the sails themselves using the battens as foot and hand holds. They were also particularly easy to raise and lower, since they were simply ‘hung’ and, when raised would fold back into their creases. Consequently ships with sail plans on the Chinese pattern could be effectively handled with very small crews.

The need to operate in coastal waters, shallows and on rivers meant that wind power was not always available, or was in the wrong direction to traverse the required course. Asian ships were generally equipped with sculling oars, or to be ‘poled’ like enormous punts.

In common with Western ship design, which involved many standard ‘types’ of ship, Asian ship designs could be grouped into several distinct classes. The Kiangsu and Pechilli were standard forms of transport, often used by merchants and were also the traditional vessel of the various pirate factions. The common junk was used extensively on rivers but was also seen on coastal trade routes and occasionally on the open ocean. The Crooked Junk was typically a small vessel, similar in size to a 19th century oared gunboat. These craft were propelled by oars. Their sterns were designed to allow a sweep oar to propel and control the vessel in rapids. Developed as a result of European influence, the Lorcha was a hybrid, featuring a Western hull with oriental sails. As a counterpoint to these Eastern designs, Western shipwrights produced the various designs of fast Clippers which plied the opium trade. These were fast, graceful ships but generally carried a heavy punch - they could generally outrun the western naval vessels encountered in the China Seas, but were relatively heavily armed and could outgun most indigenous vessels.

Chinese Naval Warfare

It is perhaps not surprising that the Chinese didn’t develop naval gunnery to the degree practised by the Western navies. The majority of the actions fought took place in restricted waters, often on rivers in head to head encounters. Few cannon were mounted, the Chinese instead relying largely on close quarter actions and boarding. Thus the weapons developed by the Chinese tended to support this style of fighting. Typical weapons included fireships, rafts and burning torches, stink bombs, anti-boarding spikes, and primitive mines.

Stink bombs - these were small grenades, clay pots filled with gunpowder, sulphur, nails and other shrapnel and any other unpleasant substances which the maker had to hand. They were used in boarding actions, hurled by the boarding parties just before they stormed their intended victim, or thrown onto an approaching warship’s decks to disrupt the boarders before they made their attack. Being hand thrown their range was severely limited.

Mines - These were made from wooden barrels filled with gunpowder and rigged with a fuse. These would be laid by a ship and set to drift down upon an enemy. Chinese ‘minelayers’ were quite adept at estimating the anticipated speed of drift and could set the fuse accordingly. Nevertheless this was quite a haphazard weapon to use.

Fireships - Not quite on the grandiose scale of Western fireships, the Chinese equivalent was often made up of two small boats filled with combustible material, connected by a stout hawser or chain. A ship passing between the two boats would foul the chain and bring one or both of the boats alongside.

Spikes - These were arranged around a ships hull to discourage enemy ships from closing and boarding.

War on the Rivers

For age-of-sail players used to actions on the high seas, or even in normal coastal waters, the confined waters in which many Oriental actions were fought present some interesting problems. That is not to say that actions in open water did not occur (even on the rivers - the Yangtse is, after all, one of the world’s widest rivers), but since the Chinese vessels were really restricted to rivers and the littorals this is where most of the action will take place.

As alluded to already, operating a sailing vessel on a twisting river presents some unusual problems for sailing vessels constrained by the wind to certain courses. In many cases the ships boats would be lowered and the vessel towed. This would not present too much of a problem, but would of course expose the boat crews to extreme danger in action.

As well as wind constraints there would be depth constraints, possibly with narrow and sometimes shifting channels known only to local pilots (who may or may not be trustworthy…). Then there is the river flow itself - a typical regional river current of 1-2 knots would be appropriate, but could increase to as much as 5 or 6 in restricted areas or during floods (as an aside the depth of the Yangtse river could easily treble to as much as 60 feet during the rainy season!)

Most rules include some sort of rules to cater for shallows, but in these sort of scenarios they become somewhat more relevant. Referees and others should be aware of this challenging environment when writing scenarios, as they add considerably to the enjoyment and ‘feel’ of the game, and stop the scenario degenerating into an ‘open sea with lots of coast’ action as can often happen.

The Opium War

Whilst coastal and trade protection actions took place in the China Seas throughout the Napoleonic Wars, the major period of interest to naval wargamers in the region during the age of sail (or rather towards its end) was the Opium War of 1839-42. Despite the advances in naval technology in Europe and the USA since the fall of Napoleon the ships involved in the war were generally sail driven.

The main purpose of the RN presence on the coast of China was to maintain a blockade in defence of the right of British traders to import opium to mainland China. Opium had been exported from India to China since the latter years of the Napoleonic wars. This was before the trade in tea from India took off and was an attempt (partly by the authorities in India) to maintain a balance against the goods being exported from China at the time. A permanent trading enclosure, known as "The Factory" was established at Canton, 40 miles up the Canton river from the sea. Communications with the outside world were maintained by ships coming up to canton, or to Wampoa, 12 miles downstream. In 1820 the Chinese government declared the trade in opium illegal, although this was largely ineffective as many of the coastal warlords and mandarins were heavily involved in the trade or were accepting bribes from the importers. This state of affairs continued until 1837 when a government crackdown, initiated by the Emperor, and overseen by Lin Tse-hsii, led to the expulsion of several merchants from Canton and the seizure of stocks and properties belonging to the opium importers. Tension increased until February 1839 when Chinese police executed a local merchant involved in the trade and travel restrictions were placed on foreign nationals. To safeguard the British merchants in the region a squadron of the Royal Navy was despatched to Canton under Captain Charles Elliot, RN. Elliot advised the merchants that Canton was no longer safe. He was right, as Lin besieged the Factory, confiscating 20,000 cases of opium (worth £5 million, or the equivalent of £500 million today) when the inevitable occurred and the enclosure fell to Government forces. A withdrawal was made to Hong Kong Island, a move beginning the process which led to the British possession of the colony.

The situation deteriorated as the British attempted to continue the trade, opposed by the Chinese government. Diplomatic efforts were frustrated by the distances over which official communications and information had to travel, personalities on the ground, and after a number of minor incidents which rapidly escalated a state of near general war existed on the coast of China. There were several expeditions upriver to engage and destroy Chinese naval forces and smuggling operations. The blockade intensified in 1840 when all Chinese navigation was forbidden and orders were issued for all Chinese ships to be seized. In reaction the Chinese government offered bounties for Englishmen killed or captured. An enterprising Chinese could claim the equivalent of $100 for a captured sailor (or $20 for his head), up to $5000 for a Captain, and $10,000 for capturing or burning an English ship. Despite these incentives the success rate of the Chinese against the British was not great, superior firepower usually winning the day. However, there were close calls. Whilst patrolling the mouth of the Yangtse the Hellas became ensnared in a system of underwater stakes which the local warlord had placed in the river to trap unwary ships. She was attacked by eight Pechili junks which closed in an attempt to board, but the Hellas outgunned her opponents and extricated herself from this otherwise unfortunate position and was able to withdraw.

The British squadron arrived in June 1840 under the command of Commodore Bremer, later coming under the command of Rear Admiral Elliot (no relation to Captain Elliot). Some of the vessels making up the blockading squadron were:

In addition there were a host of supporting transports, gunboats, dispatch vessels and other sundry craft. Also supporting the squadron were ships of the Honourable East India Company, including several steam tugs and packets, such as the iron hulled Nemesis and Phlegethon. Both of these vessels were shallow draught paddle steamers and which were soon outfitted with guns. These vessels proved invaluable for coastal and riverine patrolling since they were unaffected by the wind and were treated with awe and suspicion by the Chinese. They and other steam vessels were also used as tugs, pulling their sailing counterparts into position in the confined waters of the Chinese coasts and rivers. (Rules are included at the end of this article to cover these early steam ships in Form Line of Battle II, which should give a guide for creating similar rules for other set such as Signal; Close Action and Action Under Sail).

The blockade of the Canton River mouth began with the capture of the island of Chusan. A minor setback occurred on 28th September when the 16 gun Kite was wrecked and her crew captured. British forces pushed inland to Canton, leading to a truce in 1841 which allowed limited trading, but word of advancing Chinese troops led to another withdrawal. Following a reduction in activities during the winter the war developed into a series of combined operations directed towards the many forts and other defences thrown up by the Chinese. These continued until a major operation was mounted in 1842 up the Yangtse river to Nanking, 150 miles inland. The capture of the city by British and East India Company forces forced the Chinese to sue for peace. The terms of the treaty were harsh, with China paying a $21million indemnity, opening up the ports of Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai to British merchants and the ceding in perpetuity of Hong Kong to the British.

Additional Rules for China Seas Actions

The special weapons used by the Chinese are easy to incorporate, as are the unusual and (for the time) novel ships used during the Opium War. A feature of the Opium War was the first extensive use of steam ships. The HEIC employed several steamers, including the iron vessel Nemesis. Ships such as she can be represented quite easily in most age of sail games. To illustrate the point I will present additional rules Form Line of Battle II, although the effect of the weapons should be evident from the brief descriptions above and the rules below, and hence should be readily adaptable to other sets, such as "Signal Close Action" and "Action Under Sail"

Hull Ratings

Wooden steamships are given Hull Ratings in the same way as equivalent wooden ships of the same size. Iron hulled ships have a Hull rating of 4 greater than the equivalent wooden ship (so a ship like the Nemesis, similar in size and features to an unrated ship would have a Hull Rating of 6+4 for a total of 10.

Movement

Steamships of course have the benefit of not relying on the wind for movement. Instead of rolling for movement as in the rules a steamship may move up to 20cm per turn. They may also use sail assisted steam power - in this case the maximum move is increased by 1 for each die that would normally be rolled. For example a frigate sized steamship using sail assistance which was Broad Reaching would move up to 24cm.

Sails

Steamships with full sailing rigs may, of course, opt to move on sail power alone. In this case treat them in all respects as sailing ships.

Damage

Steamships suffer damage as for normal vessels. If a hit is inflicted which causes multiple rating reductions this damage is caused, but in addition there is a chance the boilers may be damaged. Subtract 1 from the rating reduction caused, then roll a d6. If the score is equal or less than the number obtained the ships boilers are damaged, and she is reduced to 50% of her maximum speed (full sail assistance will still be available). If two boiler hits are caused the ship slows to a stop. The above rule can also be assumed to take account of damage to exposed paddle wheels, but these may be at risk in the event of a collision. If a paddle steamer collides with another vessel of half its own (undamaged) Hull rating or larger there is a chance the wheel on the impacted side may be damaged. Roll a d6 and add 1 if the colliding ship is larger than the steamer. If the result is 5 or more the paddle wheel is damaged. The speed of the steamer is reduced to 2/3 maximum, and the vessel can only turn 1 point away from the damaged side - e.g. if the port wheel is damaged the ship can still make its full allowance of turns to port, but only 1 to starboard. (some may think that a paddle steamship could not turn at all away from the damaged side, but most were still fitted with rudders, so could turn towards the damaged side, but invariably had to cut power to the undamaged wheel whilst doing so).

Chinese Shipboard Weapons

Stink bombs - The use of stink bombs and grenades grants the user an advantage in the first round of combat. Roll a d6 and look on the table below for the effect on the boarding action in the FIRST ROUND only.

Stocks of these weapons were limited. Allow each ship equipped with stink bombs to use them once in any game unless specified by the umpire.

Mines - These are placed in the water during the Command Phase and moves as if they were drifting vessels. If a mine comes into contact with a ship roll a die - on a score of 1-3 it becomes entangled with the ship and moves with it until it explodes or comes adrift (roll 5+ in each movement phase of the ship for this to occur). On a roll of 4+ the ship has avoided the mine which drifts on. A vessel equipped with mines may carry up to three, and may launch 1 per turn. The launching player secretly notes the number of movement phases for which the fuse has been set to burn. At the end of that movement phase and each movement phase thereafter roll a die. If the result is 1-4 the mine explodes, causing rating reductions of the number rolled to any ship in contact, or half the number to any ship within 1" On a roll of 5 or 6 the mine does not explode - roll again next turn. If two 6s are rolled in succession the mine becomes waterlogged, sinks and is removed from play.

Fire Rafts - Again, these are launched in the Command Phase and move as drifting vessels. If they come into contact with a ship they become entangled on a roll of 1-5, and whilst entangled they will start a fire on a roll of 3+. A ship may disentangle itself from a fire raft on a roll of 5+ in its own command phase. Once a raft becomes entangled with a ship and starts a fire it is removed from play. Roll a die for drifting rafts - on a roll of 6 the raft has burnt itself out and is removed (do not roll in the first turn the raft was launched)

Spikes - Vessels equipped with anti boarding spikes may damage an oncoming ship, and have an advantage in the first turn of boarding. If a ship collides with or attempts to board a spike-equipped ship, roll a die. On a roll of 6 the spikes cause 1 rating reduction. In the first turn of the subsequent boarding action the boarder suffers a -1 modifier due to the difficulty of the boarding parties to cross the spikes. Note that boarding spikes do not have any effect on ships of 4^th rate or larger.

Ship Data

Type	Hull Rating	Firepower Rating	Class	Crew Units	Agility	Fore & Aft Rig	Notes
Kiangsu Trader	4	3-4	2	1-2	3	yes
War Junk	4	3-4	2	1-3	3	yes
Small War Junk	3	3-5*	2	1-2	4	yes	oared (may have oars only)
River Junk	4	-	2	0	4	yes	oared (may have oars only)
Pechelli Trader	3	3-5*	2	0	3	yes
"Crooked" Junk	3	3-5*	2	1	4	yes	oared (may have oars only)
Lorcha	5	3-5	2	1	3	yes	Chinese sailing rig, European style hull
Opium Clipper	6	3-5	2	1	3	y/n	Typical western vessel engaged in the Opium trade.

Notes

• Agility - number of points the vessel may turn in each phase.
• Vessels noted as ‘oared’ can move as oared gunboats instead of using their sails. Transition from oar to sail or vice versa takes 1 turn to complete, during which the vessel will drift or must be at anchor.
• *All guns mounted forward - can fire ahead only (use the Broadside Firing Arc to determine viable targets).
• Vessels marked ‘y’ are treated as fore and aft rigged for movement