Life Jackets and Survival at sea.

Everyone likes a trip on a boat at some time. But the occasional occurrence does not always encourage one to spend 70 quid on a life jacket or 30 quid on a buoyancy aid.
Nevertheless, your safety is in your hands.
So if you are looking forward to such a trip on a boat with minimal safety aids, such as a friends boat where lifejackets do not abound, then it is up to you to make yourself safe. If you are a poor swimmer or unlikely to be able to swim to shore from at least a mile away, against the worst tides, then you must always wear some safety aid.
Never rely upon getting a hand hold on a life buoy ring (life saver).

Trips on boats are great and recommended if done safely.
Always check the charts for the area, then navigation channels and any permitted anchoring places and also where you may not anchor. (There are many 'anchor wankers' out there, especially around Plymouth.)
Make sure the boat is fit for purpose and has a compass, a reliable engine and enough fuel or sails. Also a ship to shore radio.

Also check you have a life jacket or buoyancy aid and know how to use them correctly. (One for each person on board.)

Making a personal buoyancy aid.
Buoyancy aids are similar to lifejackets, although life jackets are considered to be inflatable and therefore less bulky than buoyancy aids which are fitted with simple, fail-safe bulky floats.

At 2007 prices, a lifejacket costs about 70 pounds, more if self inflating. A buoyancy aid costs about 30 pounds.

Second hand items are available from surplus stores and although the lamp batteries may be out of date, the rest is usually quite acceptable for the purpose if reasonably inspected before purchase. Give any second hand item a light cleaning, as this also helps inspect for imperfections. then adjust the webbing to suit you with your standard summer or winter sea going clothing. The battery can be replaced with a similar item or with a waterproof torch (flashlight) on a tether.

We are not all rich. I recently made my own for five pounds.
I bought two bright yellow workers safety waistcoats for 2 pounds each. (Bright orange is better for sea if it's available. They were extra large and did not sell well so, were cheaper.) I also bought a pair of nylon luggage straps with clasps buckles in the pound shop.
I searched around various shops, bike shops and garages, and picked up some rigid closed cell foam packing. It is lightweight plastic foam, used for packing engineering items and is NOT the easily broken foam used for packing HI-FI or fridges. This type of foam is almost unbreakable and can be twisted without damage.
An alternative is to make your own floats from builders foam, which is available in large spray cans. It is fairly strong, but can break or snap with poor handling, so will need some internal strengthening such as old scrap nylon netting which can be pushed into the foam as it is injected into the mould or some scrap nylon cloth to line the moulds. Make up some cardboard 'baking tins' or moulds of the required size and line the moulds with cling film then with some scraps of lightweight nylon cloth to give the foam some strength from snapping. Spray in the foam and once set, remove and carve to shape. This foam when injected into a perfect shape, will have resilient surface skin which is slightly more dense and firm than the internal foam, so always use more cling film over the expanding foam to remove excess foam and make a perfect shape before it sets, to make the final shape with a resilient surface. It is worth experimenting with a little of the foam first. One large can should suffice per buoyancy aid and cost about 3 pounds per tin of foam.

If such options are not available then a third option is to use the best quality closed cell foam used for camping mats. Never use cheap camping mat foam, which can compress if stored away under a load. Do not use ordinary foam nor any foam which can absorb water. Cork is a traditional float, but modern options are infinitely better.

Do not use the easily crumbled packing foam which can soon break up into small balls, and although held in the jacket, should it rip, then the flotation foam can be lost. If you must use foam sheet, the always buy the blue or yellow structural foam blocks used for wall or roof insulation, which is stronger and can be easily carved to shape with long knife and sanding paper. One sheet 4' x 3' x 3" should cost about three pounds.

The two waistcoats are sewn together, with the bright reflector strip removed from the inside one.
Strips of foam are placed under the back of the neck such that it will help keep the unconscious users' head above water. These foam blocks should be broad across the shoulders and not reach below the shoulder blades, as this could cause the user to turn face down in the water. These shoulder floats are minor floats for the head, nothing more. These shoulder floats are now adjusted by wearing the jacket and using a pencil to mark their most comfortable high position. To get them high under the neck, I shortened the rear shoulder sections of the jackets.

Use a long 'packing' needle and nylon or terylene thick cord or string to sew through the foam blocks to loosely keep them in position. Now sew the areas of the jacket around the foam to prevent them slipping out should the packing needle stitching become damaged. This now gives two means of securing the neck foam.

As the rubbery foam was fairly rigid, before sewing, I also partially cut slots so the foam blocks could bend more naturally around the upper shoulders and I also 'gathered up' the cloth of the rear of the jacket by an inch in the shoulder area, so as the foam would be closer under my neck without being uncomfortable. I also curved and tapered the edges of the rigid foam so it would not abrade the cloth. Using rough sandpaper, this foam becomes nice and fluffy on its surface.
I used about 36 cubic inches of foam across the shoulders.

(To make a better version, the unused extra cloth cut from the base of the waistcoats can be used to make a secondary collar extension. This extension lies down like a collar in use, but floats under the head when afloat. This is simply a broad collar across the shoulders to take the same amount of floatation, allowed to either hang loose or held with a little Velcro fastener. This collar should have two float blocks to support the head centrally, or a sculpted block to support the head centrally when leaning back or asleep or if unconscious in the water.)

The main buoyancy is on the upper chest.
This consists of two main floats which will position the unconscious user face up in the water, with the acting feet as the lower, stabilising mass or pseudo keel, so the head stays uppermost.
If the user is a big person, then more buoyancy should be used, but the general idea is to be comfortable with the maximum buoyancy and use this as a buoyancy aid, rather then to keep you high out of the water. Therefore the foam fitted over the chest would be as much as is comfortably possible. Use a comparison with other buoyancy aids to make a close approximation. I used about 70 cubic inches each side of my chest.

Use as much buoyancy as possible and still remain comfortable.

THE FOAM MUST BE HELD HIGH UP ON THE CHEST, SO THE UNCONSCIOUS USER WILL FLOAT SAFELY. IF FACE DOWN IN THE WATER, THE USER MUST BE TURNED OVER BY THESE MAIN CHEST FLOATS.

The floatation must therefore be across the UPPER chest and around the neck area.

Making the foam blocks comfortable is also important, so again, carve the foam to be tailored across the halves of the chest areas. I tapered the blocks to fit the jacket and also stuffed some extra, small loose pieces of foam in the upper shoulder gaps where it would do no harm. I also partially sliced the foam so it would bend and also curved and tapered the edges of the rigid foam so it would not abrade the cloth.
I used a long 'packing' needle to sew through the foam blocks to loosely keep the main blocks in position. The jacket was then sewn around the buoyancy areas to retain the blocks.
It is possible to glue the blocks in position, but this makes fitting of the garment uncomfortable, whereas a 'loose' design is easier to wear in all positions. Do not sew too close to the blocks, as this makes an uncomfortable jacket and puts unwanted strain on the cloth and thread. Sew the jacket so the fairly loose blocks will not move too far from the desired position.
Baggy, even loose, but always secure.

The jacket is again worn and adjusted to suit the wearer. Always check by wearing the heaviest sea going clothes you have, as if it was a bad winter. Then make sure the jacket will also fit if only wearing swimming togs.

Now there are straps to be fitted.
It is possible to use just one strap under the armpits and over the main buoyancy floats which are positioned across chest, but this may be restrictive in use for some people especially the overweight. Therefore an optional a loose design, where the chest straps are rarely used (until someone calls 'abandon ship'), and just a belt strap used to ensure the lifejacket is always comfortably secured to the user.
The most important, main strap is sewn along the level of the arm pits, which is there to hold the wearer close to the main buoyancy blocks across the chest.

The socket for the main chest buckle is positioned in the centre of the chest, and then the strap sewn under the arm sockets of the jacket. The buckle on the other side is then sewn so that there is plenty of room for adjustment. The trailing end of the nylon strap can be safely tidied away and must not catch on any part of the boat.
It will be noticed that the large strap will have plenty of extra strap left, and this must never be removed for neatness, as the main buckle nay fail and the extra strap length can be used to make an emergency knot across the chest.

The other strap is a waist strap, often at the bottom of the short jacket, mainly to keep the jacket tidy on the wearer. If the straps are different sizes, then use the smaller one at the waist, as this keep the whole jacket in place on the user, and the bigger one to keep the buoyancy close to the chest while afloat.

Put on the jacket and use the chest strap, then decide the waist belt position, realising that you will be floating in the sea, and the waist belt must prevent the bottom of the jacket from riding up onto the chest, so must be able to become a secure fitting around the waist when not needed.

The bottom edge of the original yellow jackets will droop well below the waist best, so this is cut off for neatness or can be folded up to make pockets.

The removed cloth can be used to make extra pockets on the jacket. Pockets can now be made in a place on the jacket where they will not be knocked in normal use on high seas. A good place is on the upper chest. (Putting them near the kidneys, then they may well be discarded by a prat who prefers siting in comfort. Some of the tales about 'boaties' simply beggar belief.) So always choose which positions work best for you and your crew to hold the whistle, mirror and emergency light.
A basic bright yellow hat can be stored in a flat back pocket.

Add any reflective strips across the back of the head and sides of the lifejacket and especially on any hat.

You may also wish to include a survival kit. See later.

Now wear the jacket around the house for an hour, and then test in a pool. Adjust as necessary and then finally sew up all the stitching with extra stitching, especially around the shoulder areas as this is a vitally important area which must never come loose.

Minimal buoyancy aid.
If you never put to sea, or just play on ponds, then a very simple buoyancy aid can be made by making waist and shoulder straps, then sewing waterproof foam into shaped cloth tubes, with the chest webbing passing through these. Then add a chest strap over the main buoyancy blocks. The minimal webbing would be from the front of the waist strap up around the neck and back to the other front side of the waist belt. Not unlike a large foam horse collar. A spare piece of webbing or a piece of cloth should be added up the back, from the waist belt to the centre of the neck foam, to support the user in the water, as this will prevent the user falling out of the harness and hold it all in place when putting it on the body and perhaps to hold ancillary components.

Important details.

Make some simple pockets for a whistle, mirror and torch.
The torch must be marinised. I use a cheap 99 pence item using a white LED on a flexible stalk with two button cells, The battery compartment and light were sealed with household glue and the switch smothered in silicone grease.
The whistle, mirror and light are always tied to the jacket to they cannot get lost but can be easily used.

The mirror is to act as a heliograph and simply consists of a cheap plastic mirror with a small hole in the middle. The sunlight is reflected onto the mirror to any passing ships. To ensure the flash is accurate, use your finger at arms length in front of the mirror and look through the eye hole so the light is aligned towards the finger and thus the target. If you scratch cross hairs on the mirror, then this can become a very accurate instrument to ships on the horizon. The mirror is then moved or twitched to flash the emergency Morse Code sequence SOS- 'dot dot dot dash dash dash dot dot dot'. Three short flashes, three long flashes and three short flashes (o o o - - o o o ). Same Morse sequence for the whistle or a sequence, or six blasts every minute or so.

The torch should be such that it can be lit at night to illuminate your position, Therefore it should be high on the chest when afloat, to show clearly in all directions. This can be very disconcerting at night, so placing the light away from the eyes is very important for retaining good night vision. So there are two places, one afloat a little way away on a tether, or on your head. It is also possible to place it on your chest and fit a dark line where it faces the wearer to retain night vision, but this produces a blind spot for the flash and is not recommended, as if your face is illuminated, then you are more likely to be found. Every five minutes, switch off the light to allow your night vision to return, then inspect the horizon for possible rescue.

Most torches are able to supply light for a few hours only.
Well maintained LED's with lithium batteries can last for many days.
For constant 12 hour night-time use, then LED's are needed, but these are made with a focused beam. So to shine along the sweep of the horizon, they must be designed appropriately. As LED's are low power, three or four can be used with no problems and can therefore be positioned on a modified torch to sweep the horizon. As the torch is dedicated to the lifejacket, then four LED's on a long stalk or wires to be attached to the chest or a woolly hat or headband, will make the torch far more effective than just a simple hand device as the rescue will see you from all points of the compass.
Where the beam cannot be modified, then the end of the torch can be given a reflector or diffuser to spread the LED beams to a wider angle. This is usually just a piece of frosted perspex or a mirror effect cone to shine the light across the horizon, when its positioned on your chest or hat.
I use a standard torch battery pack with four LED's soldered at 90 degrees and one vertically (helicopters) held to the chest by elastic but can also be attached to a hat if needed and connected to the battery by slightly oversize flexible wires.

For a standard torch, make a piece of perspex rod to stick on the end of the lens, with rough grooves cut circumferentially and then polished to give a fairly clear sideways 360 degree beam. Held there with a little blue tacky office putty around the edges, and removable if needs be. Always add a cord tether to both.
If you know the direction of rescue, then a single beam may be better, such as for coastal use or to shine towards the coast, whereupon a simple standard torch is recommended.
To ensure the light will shine for many days, such as on ocean racing, then the combination of LED's and three 1.5 volt AA or AAA alkaline or lithium batteries is best. Always replace batteries every year.
Long thin torches are commonly used as they slide neatly into a lifejacket, but if using a buoyancy aid, where the foam is fixed, then the light can be powered by other battery packs moulded into the foam where deemed appropriate.

All switches must be totally waterproof. Few are, so always coat your switches with silicone grease to repel water and only use when needed and for regular inspection tests.

If you decide to make a bright yellow hat, (highly recommended) then always include a chin strap and have an alternative light position on the hat, as this will be more easily seen over a very limited horizon. You may look daft, but you will be that little bit safer and such a light position will not upset your night vision.

A Funny Hat: Safety over fashion.
While making a lifejacket, then consider making a bright yellow hat with lightly elasticated chin strap for security and a wide sun brim. or buy a bright orange or yellow 'beanie' hat.
If a cotton hat with a wide brim, then should it rain, you can squeeze the hat for drinking water.
The brim will keep the sun out of your eyes, reduce sunburn or wave splash on the face.
As your head is the highest point, this hat will most importantly help to make finding you at sea easier so make it bright. It is for this reason that racing boats use orange crash helmets.
To help rescuers, you should have the hat sewn so it can hold the marker or strobe light in the hat band. Remember; any extra few inches above the sea level will greatly help increase the range of visibility over the horizon and over the waves and swell.
Ideally the hat could have a little pole with a bright yellow or orange flag and an LED light. This is easily done by using a strand of vinyl covered domestic copper wire as used for cookers and bent around the hat band, then straightened when needed.
The hat may well be tucked away as part of the lifejacket, so cannot be too bulky. So a simple 'beanie' style hat will suffice. If you do not have a retainer or chin strap, then add one - or do not wear the hat on the boat; should you fall overboard, the hat may well be lost as you dip under the waves when you need it most.

If really keen, paranoid, or you fall overboard a lot, then your ideal hat band would be a line of eight white and eight bright red flashing LED's, spread around to illuminate your position in the sea, with a small 3 volt battery or 2x AA batts and a simple switch. Even one AAA battery will keep a few red and yellow LED's lit for a few days.

Look to the cheap pound shops for bicycle LED units which flash, then rebuild the components into a safety hat band. Should cost under a fiver for a battery pack, switch circuit and a dozen LED's, if sourced with common sense and an hour soldering and sewing. The basic band can be packed away neatly in a waterproof plastic bag, ready for use.

If you can print out sea survival and have it laminated, then do so. They should be clear to read and be about the size of large playing cards. The laminated instructions could be glued or sewn to the jacket so they can be read at sea and focus the wearers mind. Also stick a copy to the back of the heliograph mirror.

If you can print the sea survival small and use both sides of the sheet, then with some room left over on an A4 lamination, you can include some threaded fishing hooks with plastic bait, some line and a heliograph mirror, all in separate pieces of laminate for a grab bag. For a life jacket, the laminate can be cut into smaller sections for easy storage on the buoyancy aid. Where the laminate is bumpy, you will have to use a Teflon soled domestic clothes iron to laminate with hooks and such like. I prefer to make four small laminated sheets, held by a cord. Bend the hook eyes to lay flat on the laminate and the hooks and cord are waxed or covered with food cling film to prevent sticking to the laminate. All hooks should have lines and synthetic lures attached ready for use. First Aid components such as plasters, pills, and antiseptic and sun tan cream sachets should be cling filmed prior to 'bumpy laminating'.

Water.

You can survive for a week or so without food, but only a few days without fresh water.
Grab that water.

The 12 stages of dehydration.

    1 Thirst.
    2 Discomfort.
    3 Loss of appetite.
    4 Nausea.
    5 Headache.
    6 Dizziness.
    7 Speech difficulty.
    8 Breathing difficulty.
    9 Inability to walk.
    10 Failing senses.
    11 Inability to swallow.
    12 Collapse.

Grab that water.

Other tools I.
The whistle by day or night and the heliograph by day if sunny. In dark weather, some form of light is needed.

The most modern survival aid is the expensive radio beacon which sends a signal of you position using satellite positioning. These are expensive, but in high seas, can lead the rescuers to within a few metres of your position. Highly recommended especially if going beyond coastal waters. Rescue services prefer them as they save many hours searching and putting their own lives in danger.

Other tools II.
A simple torch (flashlight) is common, but a loss of opportunity. A torch may have a filament lamp which will not last long, whereas LED's last much longer from the same battery power.
A push bike rear and front flashing waterproof LED indicators are probably as good a sea survival item as any. The only fault is the single direction, needing the user to sweep the horizon constantly. It would be better to have four or more bight Red LED's sweeping the horizon all night, preferably flashing.
I recently found a perfect item for modification, consisting of a five while LED cap light for cyclists, using a couple of 3v button cells and with both steady and flashing modes. It cost, as you may have guessed, one pound. It would also work on 4.5 volts. The LED's were desoldred from the small circuit board, which was cut down to just the flasher chip. The contents inserted into a body of a three AAA battery torch body, the lamp and reflector removed, the flasher circuit added, five red LED's around the head and the simple trigger switch for the red LED circuit. It looked strange but when attached to a head band, will sit as high as a lifejacket can offer, and sweep the horizon with flashing red lights. A central trio of white LED's were added for normal use if needed, using the standard switch on the base. But the red items are considered the most important. Please note, the flasher circuit is normally connected to the battery, which can drain over time, so I connected mine using a simple on off switch, which only operates the red LED's in flashing mode, but otherwise isolated the battery fully form any change of long term drainage or circuit deterioration. Cost 2 pounds for an alloy 3 x AAA torch and the clever cap light, plus some spare epoxy resin and silicone sealant. Red LED's bought for 30 pence each. Ideal for integrating into the funny hat mentioned earlier.

Other tools III. Strobe.
Another good tool is the strobe, as it works in almost all coastal conditions if there is someone within a few miles.
(Warning, many large ships have 'look-outs' who rarely do their job and can be close to small boats without ever noticing them, so never trust any of the big ships as their crews are often dozing or talking or looking the other way or simply not interested in stopping their ship to rescue anyone.)
Warning: Playing with strobes involves very high voltages and can cause electrical shock. Any exposed circuitry must be treated with caution. Such circuits are 'mini tasers' - the horrible anti personnel devices used by less civilised police forces and for torture.
The ideal light would be a low power strobe light which flashes every few seconds, as they are much easier to see and very effective.
(If sailing at night in shipping lanes, then always consider using a strobe, even though its not official maritime practice, as most crews of tankers and other ships are prone to be paid peanuts and therefore act like monkeys, and run you down. It happens regularly, and no one is the wiser, nor cares, other than another scratch on the ships hull and an awkward silence by any observant crew to note your passing to Davy Jones's locker. So fit a strobe to the top of the mast for shipping lanes, and make sure it's used. Make sure the radio is working when in such places, so that if you get run down, the Coastguard, or their answering machine will know.)

Strobes are expensive to buy from chandlers and specialists.
The components described here cost one quid, and came from a disposable camera with flash.
As you may have guessed, making your own does not cost as much as the commercial price tags would suggest. - Remove the internals of a disposable camera with flash, then modify this to do the same job. Such a disposable camera with flash should cost just one pound.
I get mine from the pound shops (or if teaching in Britain, by begging photo shops). It even includes a battery.

The little flash tube in cameras sits in a reflector but this can be discarded after de-soldering the tube, but it will be noted that there is a third, trigger wire or metal strip near the tube and this must be replaced with a piece of wire, as described later. The rest of the components can remain as they are, apart from the power on switch and the trigger switches, which are also simple modifications.
As the camera flash is far brighter than the normal lifejacket flash, then adjust the design to flash just once every 10 to 20 seconds or so to conserve battery power and to last a night. The flash unit must be totally waterproof and the operating switch sealed under a rubber seal or heavily coated in silicone grease for the few days it will remain working in the sea.
If an ocean device, then use larger batteries and an on/off switch and perhaps a solar charger.
Most strobes are connected to life buoys, to illuminate the position of a man overboard, and as such are rather large devices. But it is perfectly possible to make a personal device to sit on a compact folded life jacket.
If fitted to the large U buoyancy aid at the stern of a boat, then the strobe should be stowed with this, so that when thrown, the strobe will automatically start flashing. for protection, the strobe should ideally be protected by the U shape from any damage, and float upright nearby upon reaching the sea. Expecting the buoyancy air to land 'jam side up', or remain with a fixed strobe in the desired upright position is not understanding the nature of the sea. so make the strobe self rights, and on a short tether to illuminate the man overboard in the darkest of seas.

The normal flash unit uses a single AA battery, which is ideal for my preferred 'pencil strobe' but for longer use in ocean waters, a high quality C cell is recommended. Either a sealed lithium C cell or a NiMh with solar cell to constantly top up the charge.
The battery holder must be waterproof and allow the battery to be replaced every year. I would prefer a commercial waterproof battery holder, but they are hard to find, so an old torch body or even a felt marker pen body can be modified with its push fit end plug, then add internal brass strips to make the contacts and some rubber to maintain contact pressure. If hard to find in a suitable size, then simply make a battery holder from rolled plastic tubing. Pad the battery slightly and fit a wire down one side with a flexible end, to connect to the bottom of the battery. By rolling the thin plastic around the (lightly padded) battery, and applying glue between the layers, a strong holder can be made. Do not use the semi clear plastic from milk bottles as its often biodegradable so will not last five years. Always use known plastic such as clear nylon or acrylic sheet. If the plastic sheet is not strong enough, then simply make many turns to make a suitably strong holder.
Because gluing plastic can be fraught with problems, then upper part of the tube can be cut with holes to secure a wooden or plastic bung with central electrical spring, then epoxied to make secure fixing to the strobe frame. The bottom hole is simply bunged with a suitable stopper to ensure the bottom electrical contact securely holds the battery in position. A simple pin though the bung can secure the battery in position for a year until needing replacement. To prevent water ingress, the ends should be lightly greased or sealed with silicone sealant.
The battery box and circuit board can be housed in discrete card board boxes and tubes then glued together, followed by a liberal covering in lacquer or epoxy resin, which makes it easier for school projects. As the circuit boards are often awkward shapes, then if needing a slimline item, they can be scored, then cracked along a suitable line and the circuit re connected with solder and wire to make a more compact unit.

If a larger strobe with a sealed battery, such as for use with life-buoys, then a NiMh battery and small solar cell could be used especially if it is positioned on top of the boat in direct sunlight. (See also the Batteries web page on my website.)

The camera flash tube is de-soldered and a small wire wrapped around where the original third contact was for triggering the tube. This is simply a thin piece of wire strand, teased from domestic flex and glued to the side of the tube in a similar position as the original. Then tested using the supplied battery. The other main leads of the ends of the flash tube are soldered to long thin wires and through the old plastic tubes to act as insulation for the high voltages used. I use the old ink reservoir tubes, but they are often a tight fit, so they are scraped down to size to fit the clear pen body. These are then placed inside a clear ball point pen body, so it sticks up, away from the battery. The three wires from the strobe tube lead down to the circuit board and capacitor, with the battery at the lowest point, such that it will naturally float upright in the sea. Always make sure you get the most effective 360 degree flash from the tube, as any blind spot is not recommended.

On switch options.
A simple on/off switch can be soldered to the place where the original circuit board contacts were, or positioned near the surface of the buoyancy block. To improve simplicity, if you can get stainless steel spring contacts to fit here, separated only by a piece of plastic, then by simply pulling the plastic from between the contacts, the unit will start working. Such a little piece of plastic attached to a piece of yellow string running through the float block can be protected from the environment with grease. By simply pulling the string, the on switch works, but remains sealed at all other times. If no switch is desired, then the cord can be tied to pull a piece of plastic from between the battery and its contact. As batteries are sprung loaded with a spring, then inserting a narrow, thick sliver of plastic makes for a superb activation switch. This also isolates the battery form the rest of the circuitry and if corrosion set sin after being neglected for three or more years, then its much easier to clean the mess and get it working again.
If attached to a lifesaver, this pull-string can be attached to a bright yellow 'PULL' tag, and thence in turn to a thin piece of breakable thin sew thread to the boat, so it will be triggered automatically when thrown overboard.

Flash trigger switch.
To control the flasher in automatic mode, you will need a timer made from a resistor, capacitor and thyristor or similar timer items. A simple alternative is to employ the 'flash ready' light to automatically trigger a small relay. Some designs use an LED, others a small neon lamp, so the relay will have to use the voltages of whatever is used on your particular flash unit 'ready LED or neon'.
An on /off switch and an automatic mode is recommended, as you may well be asleep during the second night, when finding you is probably more likely. Only the fearless or flippant can sleep easily through the first night to retain their strength.
The small bronze 'lens open' trigger levers are replaced by a relay which can be triggered by the 'ready light' on the circuit board. The relay must be suitable for the light, some are 1.2 volt LED's, some are high voltage neons, so choose a 1.2 volt micro relay or a 250 volt micro relay accordingly. Alternatively if electrically minded, then use a resistor and thyristor to trigger the flash via the ready light at a longer flash rate, to last much longer.

If you cannot make such an automatic flash item, then simply fit a waterproof manual push trigger button control. If manual use, always fit a remote switch lead, as you will not want to, or be unable to move your arm every twenty seconds or so.
For manual triggering, the trigger contacts can be replaced by a long thin dual wire and a sealed push button. (About 3 feet.) If a manually triggered system, then the tether is a good compromise for a strobe, consisting of two wires to a simple sealed button switch to trigger the flash. If the strobe is floating nearby, or on a hat or lifejacket, the users hands will not be nearby so a remote trigger witch is needed. This trigger has a high voltage, so it must be well sealed or use a plastic cased, rubber membrane push switch. This must be able to be held in the hand without effort, to trigger the device if floating a short distance away or perhaps placed on a hat or chest. You may be weak or injured and to keep your hands warm, the switch can be placed in the mouth. (Many modern devices can be operated by mouth and tongue switches, as described in my DIY Prosthetics monograph.)
Any tether must be restrained and tied to the lifejacket harness or around the wrist. Ideally the tether should be strong nylon, with any wires lightly joined to it, so as not to put strain on the wires.

The circuit board is often of an awkward shape, so the trigger and other components may be repositioned to make the best alignment. Most components are retained as they are to prevent damage to the circuit board, with just the strobe tube, the battery and switches modified. The components can be re-realigned to make the device as thin and tall as possible for easy storage and to ensure the strobe light sits as high above water as possible.
Because this is a long term device, it must be possible to replace the battery every year as part of normal maintenance routines. A standard waterproof battery holder is recommended or the body of a cheap torch (flashlight).
Alternatively use a few small solar chargers from old calculators and a NiMh battery can keep the unit ready at all times for about six years if using new components and two probes to check battery condition. Use the latest 'Hybrio' rechargeables, as they hold their charge much longer.
As it is such a long thin device and prone to bending in use, then make sure the design can take a little bending damage without loosing its effectiveness. Making the stalk foldable is preferable for physical protection, reliability and compact stowage on the lifejacket.
When all is aligned, I like to add a couple of long sticks of thin bamboo for internal strength to hold it all together and tie the pen body and battery to the bamboo with cotton thread. Bamboo is light, strong and will bend rather than break.
Buoyancy is easily obtained by moulding aerosol rigid foam around the central circuit board and switch. The circuit is waterproofed with silicone sealant and a simple switch for the battery on/off and another pair of wires to trigger the strobe is positioned on a long thin line to trigger the device, as this dual core wire also acts as the tether or whatever design features the reader prefers. For very compact design, the floatation blocks can be hinged or loosely tied to lie flat against the body, but be able to fold out to support the strobe stick in the water. this can be easily done with two pieces of blue foam and bamboo sticks, hinged with simple turns of strong thread, and shaped to lie alongside the body of the strobe and thereby help to protect it.
If automatic flashing, then just the on/ off switch is needed, plus the important nylon tether cord. I prefer to add a manual on switch on the tether, should the automatic switch fail.

When working correctly, the whole is given a spray of hair lacquer and a coating of silicone sealant to insulate the components and prevent corrosion. The hair lacquer makes any repair easier.
The design may now be finally encased in a cardboard shape and builders foam injected to make it buoyant and sealed for life. Or simply squirt the foam over the device and use paper or plastic film to roughly shape it as it sets. Then carve as needed to get the perfect buoyancy and vertical alignment in water. The buoyancy shape can be anything you wish, possibly a wide, flat design to lay neatly inside the lifejacket or alongside the head with an elastic head band. It may well end up looking like a large fishing float. As the foam is bubbly, then it can be cosmetically improved with some yellow paint or vinyl electrical tape. Now test in the sink to ensure it floats properly in very rough water.

Automatic actuation.
An automatic device could be useful in some situations. If you are unconscious as you knock your head and fall overboard, then an automatic inflator is needed. As this is not common, then manual inflation and other components are perfectly acceptable. Even if unconscious, you should return to consciousness within a suitable time and activate the other components as needed, including any radio beacon and strobe. Only automatic lifejacket inflation should be immediate, but can be expensive, although other items can be delayed or operated manually.
There is no point using automatic operation if a knowledgeable seafarer who is conscious. Only if the user is unconscious, either staying afloat on a buoyancy aid, or an automatic inflation lifejacket is an automatic strobe needed. If passengers, unskilled crew, or kiddies with buoyancy aids at night, then automatic use is desirable.

Many commercial devices have a design of battery consisting of a dry cell with access to sea water, which then acts as the electrolyte, which only starts working once it is in water, but these are hard to make and expensive to buy and replace regularly. They also suffer after many years in a damp environment. There are alternatives to automating various systems.
If the device needs an automatic on switch, and is designed to float a little distance from the user, or with a life saver thrown after a man overboard, then a float can be used to trigger its operation. The buoyancy float can be designed to activate the switch either by sliding up the stem, or unfolding or by a variety of methods. On some camera designs, the original trigger unit is a pair of light bronze contacts, which can be easily modified to make such float operated contacts. These can easily be moved by the float as it deploys in the sea.
For a strobe or beacon light, it is important to ensure any automatic float switch will sit upright in the water, and as such, the device must be free to float and not be constrained by the user. If in doubt about the ability for any float switch to work, then also add another means of starting the device, such as a pull string cord.
To make an automatic device, it must activate itself once in the sea and not when you are washing down the deck. Therefore such devices are usually enclosed as part of the folded lifejacket designs.
For buoyancy aids, such automatic devices need to be very carefully designed, as they are always lightly held on deck, ready for throwing into the sea, or should the boat sink.
The simplest is to have a switch operated by a float hidden inside the device. As such items are knocked about on board, then the float should not be activated in any horizontal movement or by a drop. The ideal is a vertical lift to activate the switch and this is natural for any float. Therefore a simple pair of silver or gold plated contacts lightly separated by a float will suffice for low power devices. This can be held in the low part of the floatation component of the device. A small hole to allow air to escape and for water to enter are needed. For safety, three entry and air exit holes are recommended should some become blocked over the years of waiting. The holes should be in different alignments and staggered and shielded to prevent blockage.
For instant activation, place a float between two lightly sprung contacts so the water will displace the float and activate the device upon contact with water. Such contacts should be protected from corrosion with silicone grease and have a pinpoint or a wiping contact to ensure good electrical contact if you cannot silver or gold plate the contacts. Likewise, the float should be positioned such that it cannot displace easily such as being knocked or dropped, so a float which rides upwards is not only ideal; it is also simple and most reliable. Simply rubbing the contacts with gold or silver, then burnishing and polishing may suffice, as they should not be in direct contact with much moisture until needed.
Dissolvable triggers. A compact alternative is to use a quickly dissolvable trigger between the sprung contacts, but these usually make a sticky mess on the contacts, even sugar, and must use foam or paper filters in the holes to prevent any moisture entering before use. Use strong, pointy contacts which will rub against each other for better contact, rather than just press against each other. Such dissolvable may also leak electricity. Sugar is mostly carbon and salt is also conductive. A better alternative is to use a dry paper stalk holding the trigger arms apart, but not directly between the contacts, but holding the arms instead. This works better, but can also get damp unless protected with a damp air filter. Dissolvable triggers are generally not a good idea unless regularly maintained and very carefully tested.

(As can be seen, strobes can be made from reconstructed disposable cameras with flash, some foam and pen bodies can make a superb school project with wider horizons. I am one of tens of thousands of unemployed Anglo-Saxon, male B.Ed. B.Sc.'s. Gizzajob. )

Safety knife.
Any knife must be suitable for cutting any line or rope on the deck which may entangle you, especially if paying out nets or pots.
The knife must be to hand at all times and easily carried without damaging anything else, especially an inflatable life jacket. For this reason you may prefer a small strong knife with a good scabbard, either on a belt, sea boots or on the back of the life jacket. Preferably the knife should float, or have an attached scabbard made of cork or foam.
A cheap alternative is a sharp kitchen knife, with the blade covered with masking tape to prevent corrosion and also prevent any damage to the lifejacket. The masking tape will not stop the user from cutting through any string or rope, but it will greatly help prevent damage to anything else.
In place of a scabbard, the knife can be inserted into a piece of suitably firm foam to allow it to float. I simply push the knife into hard foam, then note the alignment and carve the foam to match the position of the blade. The foam is then covered with bright yellow vinyl tape.
If on a lifejacket, then always include wrist strap or tether cord so the knife and scabbard / float are not lost.

Summary.
As may be seen, that with such choices, a buoyancy aid or lifejacket should become a jack of all trades when worn. Rather than carry lots of bits and pieces, the lifejacket should be a single step for all your safety needs, without forgetting anything. Putting it on before leaving the shore should be all that's needed.
My lifejacket includes a small safety knife with floating scabbard. White LED torch, red LED flasher unit, whistle and heliograph.
When I can afford a radio beacon, this too will be added. Until then, a small waterproofed cell phone pocket holding a cell phone in a waterproof plastic bag is used in coastal waters.

Next time you step on board, I hope you will be wearing a buoyancy aid or lifejacket, that you will treat it with care, inspect it for suitability and know how to use it.

The standard 'man overboard' buoyancy aid on the stern of a boat should be well specified. It should include an automatic light, also a buoyant bright flag six feet above the water, on ten feet of rope, so it can be seen at night and in heavy seas. (Few folk fall overboard at day on mild seas, so will need to know where to swim.) It should also include a dye marker and a sea drogue to keep position with the man overboard and not blow further away.
The automatic light can be operated by a simple switch so the light comes on as soon as its removed from the stern mounting. The flag can be a spring loaded fibreglass design, folded in half when stowed, so it unfolds and floats upright with suitable ballast and buoyancy. An old fishing rod tip is ideal. Check six monthly and before any long voyage.

Long term survival equipment.

If out in oceans, then you must be prepared for weeks stranded alone and this demands special considerations.
After primary distress calls before sinking, one of the main considerations is drinking water. Grabbing what is available may be possible, but if a fast sinking, then you should have prepared a weeks drinking in the or near the liferaft.
If you have chosen to use the dinghy, then make sure you have a waterproof roof, even if it means curing up the main sail, as high seas can otherwise swamp a small open craft. Even if you turn over, the roof may be able to save much from sinking. In the worst cases, you may only have a hole for the head, with oars sticking out the side, as with Shakleton. This of course preferably requires earlier preparation and is why the boat of larger craft may often be seen on deck, with a tarpaulin, ready to float as the main hull descends below the waves. Make sure yours is the same. If you store your small dinghy upside down, make sure there is a full survival kit included, securely lashed inside.
For everyone else, there should be at leat one inflatable liferaft secured such that it self releases when under water. They are often the large torso sized white fibreglass containers seen on deck. If some fool has lashed it too securely then it is useless.

There is hand operated desalination equipment, but they are expensive and often cause a lot of effort such as reverse osmosis designs. A water maker, desalinator, driven from the engine or using 12 volt motor to ensure fresh drinking water and to top up the emergency water containers as part of the life raft package. PUR watermakers offer a fine range of options. Manual desalinators are available and should be used as a back up, plus a small one for the life raft. They also make other water purifiers, although I had to redesign some components for better reliability.
The effort to pump reverse osmosis systems needs energy which means food, which in turn demands water to help digestion while maintaining a reasonably healthy body for long term survival. I'm still developing other means of desalination, but they are not easy. For food, the survival kit should include fishing components. For solar panels see batteries section. For water, see solar stills page.

For longer voyages the following is recommended.

3 red parachute flares. 3 red hand-held flares. 2 orange hand-held smoke flares. 2 sea dye markers.
1 406 manual EPIRB (radio beacon). 1 hand-held VHF. 1 waterproof sealable bag for VHF.
1 signal mirror. 1 whistle. 1 rescue streamer.
1 AM/FM radio w/ spare batteries. Solar battery charger or 'wind up radio or flashlight' adapted to charger.
Two waterproof torches (flashlights). Spare batteries. 24 chemical lightsticks.
1 hand bearing compass. 1 waterproof digital watch, (I set mine to Greenwich Mean Time for navigation purposes.) Kiddies school protractor modified to act as a simple sextant.
1 life raft repair clamp kit. Raft pump or push bike pump with adapter. Sea anchor, part of the life raft kit.
2 pkts lifeboat waterproof matches. 50 zip-lock bags.

1 knife with safety scabbard or float.
12 assorted fishhooks. A spool 80-pound test line 20 feet wire leader.
1 water maker. 1 gallon folding jug. 10 water packets, minimum.
High-energy food. Small Swiss army knife with can opener.

Synthetic polypropylene underwear, long-sleeve shirt, survival blankets. Gaffer tape. Survival blanket can be cut to make impromptu sunglasses and hat.
First aid kit and manual Sun block Seasickness pills Vaseline Multi-vitamins.
Notepaper. Pencils. Reeds almanac. Charts, atlas. Life raft survival book. Basic medical book. (waterproof or Laminated versions.)

The Pocket Doctor is a small and useful volume. Spray it with silicone maintenance spray so it won't go soggy, or pack in a waterproof bag. Sweeties in thick sealable bags are very useful and make very strong water containers. I add a pack of Old English fudge and similar, in such a bag both for energy and for holding water.

Optional, if handy when abandoning ship.
Wet suit. Speargun and spare spears. Plenty of parracord and a wire saw for driftwood rafts. Sail pole, cloth and materials, plus an oar for rudder.

To gather all possible rain, then the space blankets can be used to catch rain and store in the zip lock bags. A sponge or cotton cloth is also useful to mop up any spillage. If windy, then placing a cotton sheet over the space blanket will retain the rain to safely drain into the plastic storage bags. Any drift wood may be used to make a rain catcher frame. This must be practised to be ready before the rain appears.
As can be seen, making or modifying your own liferaft can improve the situation, if done carefully for the climes you intend to sail.

A small tip - add some honey to your emergency kit, it not only makes a high energy food, but last for a long time and can also be used as an excellent emergency wound covering. It also offers a luxury taste. Either a small pot, or sachets of honey.
For making your own medicines packs, see my survival monograph.

TIP: If making or buying a buoyancy aid for the rear of the yacht, then it is often a U horse shoe shape. This allows the survivors arms to hang across the U and remain head up. Unfortunately, a few hours in this position is awful, and even worse in heavy seas. There is nothing worse to sap your strength than a bad design. So ALWAYS add a seat loop strap made from an old car seat belt, or from nylon netting to act as a seat base, so the survivor can relax, and even cat nap while waiting, perhaps many days for rescue.

As can be seen, making your own buoyancy aid is not difficult.
Making the accessories can likewise be cheap and effective - if you use your imagination and ingenuity.

First and foremost, survival is always a state of mind.

To quote the Sex Pistols: 'His body was a temple but his mind was a slum'.
Even the most feeble person with a strong will can be the best survivor.

You may be poor, but your safety is always in your hands.

Indeed, by making your own kit, you will always be far more capable of using such equipment and of remaining alive than any rich 'boatie' prat who simply spends money without understanding the underlying needs and uses of such equipment.

(School projects.
As can be seen, even a buoyancy aid can offer some good projects for secondary schools and are part of my collection of varied projects which anyone may request, but not plagiarise. (c) J.Partidge. 2002. As an unemployed science and technology teacher living in Plymouth, I have developed a wide selection of school projects, should I ever become employed. We all live in hope. Gizzajob.
The projects employ a wide variety of skills and produce genuinely usable artefacts. (Not the lame junk and tat that too many British schools now produce.) I have sometimes not needed to set homework, because the kids naturally wanted to continue their learning at home and brought their extra curricular work in to school the following week for me to offer advice and feedback and development ideas and strategies, and all without money - just brains and enthusiasm. Being on playground duty was rarely a case of policing, but more of a wandering advice centre.
The research possibilities of such items enable real research for pennies from a young age. If a class of 30 kids have wide abilities, (and all too commonly) poor school resources, after the computer labs have taken all the money, there is still plenty of scope for all. Yes, I can be found begging photo shops to get used disposable flash cameras for projects. On emergency classes, I get the younger kids to salvage, to build up a collection of motors, belts, servos, LED's and such stuff from old videos and whatever they throw out. It teaches them to recycle and know the parts and how they work. When asked by another kid how to make such and such work they often have many solutions, and know exactly the parts they need. They like the way I turn a circuit board upside down, play a blow lamp over the solder and tap the board so all the parts fall off. Make a simple ohms tester for resistors and such like so they don't waste time reading the horrible little bands, as tedium can destroy the learning process.
The opportunities of lifejackets as a project, offers various sections on electronics, cloth, harness, floatation research using the swimming pool etc. Each group can each give short lectures as to the way they designed and made their part of an overall project.
The kids can compare with previous years designs and help develop a reliable approach, such as to 'safety at sea'. This can then lead on to after school activities for those who want to make their own complete design or improve on the commercial items or make small production runs using DIY plastic injections etc. complete with vacuum packaging. Teachers and pupils notes and materials list with lesson plans are available on request. The use of cheap cloth, electronics and priceless survival all come together to make a wide ranging project. The pupils can work as teams to make perhaps three lifejackets and three strobes for the term, should classroom finances once again be creamed off by the computer section. Please note - many reports are now showing that computers do no help kids develop their skill nor their knowledge base. - Often quite the opposite.
Please, always try to make kids happy at school. :)
Gizzajob.
John Partridge. B.Ed. B.Sc.

For those who have an adventurous nature but little money, then it's possible to make your own lifejacket.
The following is mainly to describe the process, and as such, enable the reader to buy a professional item with greater discern.
Nevertheless, there is little technology in a commercial item costing 60 quid. Spending 10 quid on making your own manually inflatable item is money well spent if you cannot afford the commercial item, or if you should want a tailored or personal design.

A lifejacket is often considered an inflatable device and as such, is NOT going to automatically save you if you become unconscious, unless using an automatic inflation sensor. Therefore careful use, build quality and reliability are vitally important.
The reason for an inflatable device is simply to make wearing it easier, as it folds away to a very compact item.
The same need for reliability applies to lifejackets as to making your own buoyancy aid, but without the float blocks, so in this respect it is less reliable, as any puncture will lead to catastrophic results.

Bladder Fabric.
Instead of permanent buoyancy, the floatation component is a gas tight bladder of the waistcoat area, which also allows the inflatable area to be folded for easy wearing.
Commercially synthetic rubber impregnated cloth is available and can be used if available. Commercial designs use single layer nylon with synthetic rubber on the inside and welded around the edges before sewing just outside the weld.
As welding is not on everybody's list of household items, then the sewing can be used to seal the sheets together, with silicone used to seal the two sheets where the stitches will be placed.

An alternative solution for the expensive rubber impregnated cloth is to make your own.
In some cases making your own is better as some types of rubber cloths can deteriorate with time. My first 1970's inflatable rubber life jacket has long since perished. Modern materials have come a long way in 30 years.

To make your own cloth, a layer of strong cloth can have silicone sealant smeared firmly into the cloth to make the airtight membrane. About four 38g tubes should suffice, although if like me, you an find it for under a quid a tube, then get a few extra tubes, otherwise consider larger economy tubes.
Modern sail cloths such as terylene or rip stop materials are excellent, if using lightweight tent or kite rip stop material, then use dual layers for strength, as a lifejacket should never be a lightweight item. - Build in survivability from the outset.

As silicone sealant is notoriously sticky, then both sides should be covered with thin polythene such as cling film, to prevent it sticking while folded and to add a little internal abrasion resistance, another airtight membrane and an oxidation barrier to ensure ten years of reliability.
To smear the sealant into the cloth, use an old credit card, preferably on a flat surface to make the process easier.
A glass sheet such as an old window is ideal for this process. If you don't like the feel of silicone, or do not want to dust the silicone with talcum powder afterwards, then simply place a clear piece of food cling film, clear or bright orange sheet of polythene on the glass, then apply the cloth and scrape the silicone into the cloth.
When beginning to set, cover with another thin polythene sheet, making sure there are no air bubbles. Use a rolling pin and lay the polythene onto the siliconed cloth as the rolling pin passes. Placing a thin rolling pin or steel bar through the cardboard tube of the cling film also allows easy placement with sufficient pressure to ensure a thick membrane with even thickness. Do not try to squeeze out all excess silicone, as a little thickness helps improve abrasion resistance and air tightness.
If there are any air bubbles then these must be sorted before it begins to cure. It may get messy, but all air bubbles must be removed.

Do not apply any polythene layer too soon, as silicone sealant needs the moisture in the air to help it cure. Wait a few hours for the silicone to show signs of curing then carefully cover with the polythene.
Yes, this stuff can be done in the kitchen.

At this stage there is no cutting of the cloth, just making the basic bladder fabric. By laying the cloth on glass, (or kitchen work surface) smearing in the silicone sealant, covering both sides with thin plastic and using a rolling pin, you should have a fully impregnated, strong and airtight piece of cloth, which is flexible, but not at all sticky.

You should now have a large sheet of cloth which is strong, airtight, moderately flexible and abrasion resistant.
Any later surface damage will show up as a rip in any outer polythene sheet, before it causes any real damage to the siliconed cloth.
If you need to repair the cloth at a later date many years hence, you can simply insert a piece of plastic sheet through the hole, then a piece of similar fabric massaged with some silicone, and the plastic sheet should stop it sticking inside, with gentle hand pressure should keep the cloth in place while it sets. Then sew up the rip in just the outside fabric. By inserting the repair internally it looks neater and air pressure helps retain it in place rather than cause a dangerous 'bubble patch' which can pull off in heavy seas.

Now the second sheet can be made. If you want a bright yellow or orange life jacket, then this is the same as above. The second sheet can be different and the sheet will fold over the yellow or orange layer and show its own cloth pattern and colour when folded.
If you want the folded life jacket to be less bright, then the second sheet can be whatever you prefer if using clear silicone sealant. If you have a hankering for a pinstripe cloth to match your office suit, or DPM or other disruptive pattern for insurgency ops, or a bright flowery pattern cloth to match your Hawaiian shirt, or heaven forbid, yet more corporate logoisms, then feel free so to do. The choice is yours, just make sure it is strong cloth or has a second layer.

The cloth is made to lie flat during initial tailoring / assembly which is like a large rectangular U shaped sheet. This is a large area about 4 inches wide under the head, which then lays over the front of the shoulders and about 7 inches wide down each side of the chest.
See pictures to get a general shape of where this project is aiming. Note the harness attachment positions and other details. Use a felt tip, lipstick or a grease pencil to mark out the tailoring lines.
The neck area is free to float in the water to support the neck but is otherwise unsewn to the webbing.

Silicone sealant.
A lot has been said about silicone sealant, and this must not be confused with the cheaper bathroom sealant. The real silicone sealant is really sticky stuff and can make a real mess, so must be treated with care and perhaps disposable gloves. I use it for fish tanks, water-cooling computers, waterproofing boat and dirtbike wiring and a host of other purposes. The list is truly limitless.
It is simple to make a test piece, using an off-cut of cloth and a little silicone sealant, then test is to understand its properties and difficulties in working this material.
The real silicone sealant is available from pet shops for making fish tanks and engineering shops and garages and home DIY shops. Buying small tubes of 38 grammes is expensive at about 2 pounds a tube, whereas a 90 gramme industrial tube is cheaper and costs about 4 pounds in 2007, but is harder to use. I prefer the smaller tubes simply because any spare sealant will keep longer in the handy tubes and it's always worth keeping these onboard the boat for a vast range of emergencies.
One early manufacturer used to make their silicone engine gasket sealer a bright orange, and although it looked horrendous on engines, it was ideal for early life jackets.
Silicone sealant is waterproof, oil resistant, heat resistant and truly a product of the late 20th century, developed from earlier uses in sealing uranium ore centrifuges.

Harness.
The bladder fabric can now be left to one side while the harness is made.
The basic support harness is made to fit the user with adjustment for the heaviest of winter clothing. This consists of two full length shoulder straps connecting to a high waist strap under the armpits.
The harness can be made from any nylon webbing as available for pennies for luggage straps.
For heavier use and often for free, old car seat belts are also excellent webbing if making a hoist webbing, which will allow a helicopter to lift you to safety or to allow you to clip onto the mast when winching or furling sails in high seas.

The harness must always hold the unconscious wearer to the buoyancy component in a safe manner, as described earlier on buoyancy aids.
The harness is a single piece of webbing behind the back, under the armpits and made secure with a buckle on the chest. To the main chest loop are added two shoulder straps to which is secured the two halves of the main inflation section.

The photo shows the simplicity of a typical harness. This example is a commercial design with the advantage of also being a security harness for securing to a life line.
To make a stronger harness, there are many miles of car safety belts available for pennies from any scrap yard and available in a few bland colours. Even old seat belts scrub up nicely in soap and water and are very easy to sew.
When cutting the webbing, use a hot knife for a neat cut, or after cutting, use a cigarette lighter to melt the frayed ends and press with a metal edge to flatten the plastic while it is still molten for a neat, tapered edge and smooth rounded corners which will not abrade the rest of the design.

The buckles can be found in camping shops or on cheap rucksacks, but always use the better types wherever possible. The best are salvaged off old army or navy equipment. The simplest and strongest is two 'D' rings, but large plastic snap buckles are reasonably good enough unless you are also using the harness as a safety line.
A good harness will allow you to be winched aloft by a helicopter.

The harness is now worn, and straps under the armpits and across the chest, then positioned and sewn into place. Tailor the harness to fit your heaviest wet weather winter clothing. If furling up aloft, then also make sure the harness is ergonomically interactive and doubly safe.

If using the harness as a safety line as well, such as yachting on high seas, then you must include a large D buckle or caribiner style connection to the boat's safety line. Use mountaineers caribiners, (crabs) as the others are crap. I have a stainless steel 'crab' with threaded turnbuckle safety lock. Alloy mountaineering crabs also available and anodised to reduce corrosion. Always replace a crab as soon as the gate spring begins to loosen.
(If sailing solo, then the safety line should be attached to a secondary safety link which spills the sails or stops the engine and turns the rudder full to one side. If you fall overboard, the secondary plug rips out under your weight, and you enter a predetermined safety situation where the sails luff or the engine stops.)

Always make sure the harness will fit over the heaviest of winter clothing, but also adjustable for wearing over a T shirt and suitable for all adults on the craft. Children are far better off with their own smaller designs, but if nothing else, then a partially inflated adult jacket is better than nothing, but should always have the proper equipment.

When sewing the harness, always use a strong thread and a wide stitching pattern to maximise the load area between the materials. - Look at car safety belts for similar patterns. Use Terylene or Dacron threads for long term reliability and resistance to UV light. (Available from all good sailmakers.)

Attaching the bladder to the harness.
The approximate dimensions of a typical jacket are 2'4" top to bottom, each main chest area 1 foot wide apiece, the area from neck aperture to the top edge is about 8" and cut from a sheet that when laid flat is 2'3" wide and 2'4" tall.

The stitching of the inflation unit cloth to the webbing must be carefully designed so as not to put more strain than needed on any single point. As the weight will be across the webbing, then this stitching must be secure and evenly tensioned to ensure there is no weak point where the stitching can rip out or cause air leakage.

It should be noted that the weight of the wearer when in heavy seas will try to rip the inflation area from the chest harness. This is particularly so if the wearer should be daft enough to jump from height while inflated. To reduce potential damage, some extra loops can be added to loosely constrain the inflated bladder at the point of maximum load.
For heavy users, secondary loops can be sewn onto the harness straps, about level with the users upper chest, where the main buoyancy area is. These optional loops must NOT be sewn into the bladder material as this simply makes a point of weakness in the airtight design, but merely to ensure extra support and glued in place one inflated. These loops around the inflated bladder are positioned so the underlying stitching in the lower outer cover does not take all the strain, by using these loops over the inflated bladder to help take the load into the chest harness. These loops should ideally be wide webbing, so as not to cut too deeply into the inflated bladder. These loops can also be used to sew secondary pouches for the whistle, heliograph and holding the light or strobe. Outer support straps are not necessary for fat people as they tend to float well. Any extra straps are recommended if a heavy, lithe or muscular person, with heavy ocean yachting clothing or if attired with any mild counter insurgency equipment.

Manual Inflation pipe.
Into this cloth membrane, prior to assembly, must be fitted a manual inflation device. (And perhaps an automatic inflation device, see later.)
The inflation pipe is retained inside the folded lifejacket until used. When the lifejacket is unfolded, ready for use, the mouthpiece should ideally be close to the users mouth should any automatic CO2 inflation process fail or is not fitted. Position the pipe appropriately on the inner, bright yellow layer and mark its position with a felt tip marker pen. If you make a long pipe, ensure it has a small external retaining strap to keep it reasonably close to the mouth.

The inflation pipe is simply a plastic tube with a one way valve.
The simplest tube would be a flexible plastic tube with a plastic bung or stopper. A simple tapered stopper made from an old toothbrush handle may suffice to retain air pressure.
Rather than a bung or stopper, a one way valve can be easily made. (Always include an emergency stopper or bung in a cord should the valve fail.)
The pipe must be large enough to allow rapid inflation, so about 1/4 inch diameter bore or 5mm is about right. (Ordinary motorcycle petrol pipe is ideal as it is semi rigid and about the right bore. I prefer the genuine Honda C90 pipe, available second hand for pennies from most bike shops.)
An alternative source is clear plastic pipe as found in pet shops for fish tanks. (Warning - if using thin pipe, it will easily collapse when trying to retain it in the bladder unit, so always insert a semi rigid support such as another piece of plastic tube or the body of a felt tip pen to prevent it collapsing when being glued and sewn to the bladder layer.)

The end which must fit into the fabric bladder must be secure and airtight, so would often need a moulded flange as found in commercial designs. Unfortunately, such a flange is difficult to make. So the better option is to insert a good length of pipe into the inflation tube a few inches into the bladder area, cover with a spare piece of sheet and sew it all together with plenty of silicone sealant.
To secure the fuel pipe in the bladder, roughen the outer surface of the tube to make a good seal, then sew an extra layer of cloth to the original siliconed cloth which can then seal the tube as it enters. During assembly, liberally apply silicone sealant and securely sew around the roughened end of the tube to make a reliable and air tight seal. The tail end inside the bladder can be sewn to keep it all securely in place. When the sealant has set, check for security.

The upper bladder layer should now have a long length of pipe securely fitted into it. The end of the pipe can be tapered to make a smooth blending shape inside the inflation area.

Traditionally, the pipe comes from about heart level across the left chest, to extend externally towards the users mouth. By putting your chin on your chest, the pipe will be at the perfect position. This is useful if having a punctured jacket and holding on with both hands while constantly inflating a slow leak. The pipe can be cut to length later after manually inflating the almost finished jacket. Then the mouthpiece and one way valve (or bung), can then be fitted at the most ergonomic position after careful testing.

One Way valve.
The other end of the inflation tube needs a mouthpiece with a bung or a valve.
The mouthpiece and valve can be a rigid plastic tube securely slid over the flexible inflation pipe which is already inserted into the bladder fabric.
To make the mouthpiece with integral valve, many of the larger felt tip pens using unbreakable plastic bodies are ideal. These items can be any of the plethora of felt tip pen bodies of varying shapes and sizes. I prefer the polythene types which are far less prone to breakage than the harder plastic types. Some of the bright yellow highlighter pens also look like they belong on a lifejacket.
You will need the main tube which needs to be a snug fit over the fuel pipe. Also needed is a slightly smaller tube and a spring and a ball to fit inside the mouthpiece tube.
Above the spring is placed a plastic ball which is a little smaller diameter than the main plastic tube, so that air can flow around it into the lifejacket. Preferably a hard rubber ball to make a good seal, but the ideal item is not so easy to find. A steel or smooth plastic ball is also a good choice. I ended up using a plastic slug from a smaller pen body, with a tapered or rounded end which slides in the mouthpiece tube, with slots or holes in the side to allow air to pass as the slug lifts off the valve seat when you blow through it.
Note: the spring must be weak enough to ensure the user can blow easily into the jacket to inflate it, but the spring must also be strong enough to ensure an airtight seal. This is normally done by adjusting the amount of spring compression as the valve unit is assembled. (Therefore always assemble the valve / mouth piece separately, then test by blowing in both directions before assembly.) In some cases, the mouthpiece can slide snugly over the inflation pipe leading into the jacket. Therefore the inflation tube can be the insert, and the outer mouthpiece tube pushed into place enough to get the correct spring tension. If no suitable sleeve pipe is available, use a similar piece of plastic and slot it so it can be curled then pushed snugly and securely into position to make the sleeve.

To retain the ball at the mouthpiece end, another tube is then inserted to retain the ball. This upper tube is also the valve seat and must be carefully made. See picture. This valve seat must be matched to the ball and be snugly secure in the mouthpiece tube. Therefore the valve seat, - where the ball presses against to stop the air flow - will need to be a good airtight seal. this is most easily done by placing some silicone sealant around the rim of the tube, and cover the ball in margarine, then very gently sit the ball on the silicone sealant overnight until it sets to make a perfect seal. A slight smear of margarine over the ball prevents the ball from sticking.

Be careful when choosing components, as many felt top marker pens have internal ribs to support the felt tip, and therefore may not allow the ball to seal. So have a good look at the options of pen and felt tip bodies first.
Choose carefully, you may even find a felt tip pen body which is unbreakable and clear bright orange and a very snug fit over your choice of fuel pipe. It's just a case of getting lots of pens and making the most of the items available.

There are alternatives to balls as valves, but balls are unlikely to fail, so search out a decent plastic ball of the correct size with a smooth finish. They are hard to find. You can also use a metal ball bearing ball, but always make sure it cannot rust, so give it a good covering of silicone grease or engine grease before final assembly.

To ensure it cannot deflate, then the valve seat must be airtight. (You may be unconscious or asleep for many hours). The seat for the ball can be made from silicone sealant, rubber glue or an O ring similar. To make a perfect seal, the ball is coated in thin grease and pressed slightly into the silicone, then left until it sets firm to make a perfect seal. The silicone sealant makes a nice, soft, deformable valve seat which should allow for imperfections in the design. Other alternatives can be an O ring or closed cell foam or whatever you deem as airtight.

The 'valve in a pen body' can now be assembled and tested by blowing through both ways. Use some spit over the end to check for any air leakage.
If is probable that the spring is too weak and the supporting insert needs to be pushed in further. Or the spring may be too hard, and the insert will need to be slid back until it is easy to blow through the mouthpiece. Note the depth of the spring support and insert with glue or silicone sealant to get a perfect valve assembly.

When tested and found satisfactory, the valve mouthpiece can be secured over the fuel pipe and retained with silicone sealant. Roughen up the pipe and the mouthpiece to increase the mechanical strength of this join. Check you can inflate by pushing your chin on your chest for optimal position.
Make sure no sealant gets near the valve or causing the airflow to clog. So always apply the sealant to the flexible pipe before inserting, so any excess sealant is easily removed. Adjust before the sealant sets, and check it blows clearly through one way only and no pressure leakage in the other direction. The mouthpiece can be further secured to the inflation pipe by strong adhesive tape or using spare bladder cloth to match the rest of the design.
The mouthpiece, valve and flexible pipe unit is now ready for sewing and sealing into the bladder. The air tube is inserted into the outer face of the upper bladder sheet so that it will be near the mouth when inflated.
It will be noted that inserting the fuel pipe into the mouth piece and into the bladder will demand a strong connection, the mouth piece felt tip pen should be a long way into the tube for security. Likewise, the fuel pipe can be inserted a long way into the bladder to ensure a good seal. As it is not possible to weld plastic tubes into the bladder as per commercial designs, then it is imperative to make the inflation tube seals as good as is possible.
To improve the seal, the fuel pipe should be roughened to improve the strength of the seal. Likewise, the fuel pipe into the bladder should be very snugly sewn without collapsing the pipe.

Alternative one way valve I.
For a simpler valve, then a sheet of rubber cloth or siliconed cloth can be laid over the internal end of the pipe and into this sheet is made a small cut. Over this cut is laid a large sheet of similar cloth, with just one edge left unglued, so that it becomes a one way valve. To deflate the unit, the cut must be able to be opened by inserting a smooth rod to open the slit and allow the air to exit. This is not easy and can lead to damage. Another concern of such a membrane valve is that the valve area must remain flat to work. Therefore the area should include a stiffening piece of plastic to keep the valve from folding and leaking. This valve is easier to make but prone to problems unless well made.

Alternative one way valve II.
If no good at valve making or having no luck, then the core of a bicycle or motorcycle inner tube can be used after mild modification. Take the Schrader valve and unscrew to remove the valve unit. A special tool is needed, often as part of the valve cap dust cover. It will be seen that the little valve has a concentric spring, which is unfortunately too difficult for a person to blow past. The spring must therefore be softened by sniping off one turn, or other method. As these valves are cheap, a good version will soon be made. This can then be tested by blowing through the inner tube extension piece in both directions to check. The valve assembly can then be simply glued into the inflation tube so that it is easy to fit in the mouth. Unfortunately the constrictive nature of the valve makes inflation a little longer to make, but otherwise perfectly acceptable.

Assembly.

Adjust the harness and sew to the inner bladder layer first.
Adjust the position of the harness and the bladder for best fit, and mark with a tailors chalk or felt marker.
When sewing the harness to the inner bladder layer, always use silicone sealant between fabric and harness so the stitching will be airtight and smear the inside after sewing. The stitching should be with strong thread and doubled as this is the most important stitching of all. Do not use a tight stitch as this can cause rip areas. Do not use loose stitching, as this can cause movement. Get the stitching snug but not tight in this area.
If you have a sewing machine, then aim for double stitching for strength and to improve the width where the sealant will seal the two main halves and take the strain.
The stitching between the bladder layer and harness should be wide as the shoulder webbing and lightly 'zig zagged' in between.

At this stage should have a strong shoulder and upper waist harness with adjustable buckle and the lower bladder sheet attached so it al site neatly on the shoulders, under the arms and the head support comfortably in position.

Once the webbing is sewn into place on the base layer and the inflation tube is on the upper yellow layer, the final shape of the edges can now be worn and tailored to fit the user. Do not cut the edges yet; simply mark with felt tip marker.
See pictures for the general outline and central hole for the neck area.

The stitching around the edge to seal and make the inflation area is simple, but must be sealed prior to inflation with silicone sealant.
The marks will ensure the bead of silicone sealant goes where needed, and then sewn to the desired shape. Trim the cloth later, neatly cutting around the final stitching. Use broad, snug stitching with no sharp corners.
To prevent the edges being stuck too heavily, always apply just a small, thin bead of sealant where the stitching is to go. The stitching should be double row as this is most important stitching and the thread should be suitably strong.
Make sure this stitching is evenly done and no tight or loose tension - as it is important to maintain reliability. Finally a little edging cloth can be added to prevent the edges from fraying, although the sealant should easily prevent this. A simpler method of edging is to simply glue some edging material to make it look neat and protect the edge.

TIP: To prevent excess sealant building up into beads inside beside the sewing, the bladder should be lightly inflated after sewing, just enough to prevent the areas close to the sewing does not get stuck together.
TIP: Just before sewing the last section, add a large spoonful of talcum powder between the bladder layers, so that when lightly inflated, the talcum powder can be shook about the insides, to prevent any stray silicone sealant from gluing the halves together in any unwanted manner.

Do not cut the bladder cloth until after sewing. - Lay the two sheets together, mark out the shape, then lightly silicone together and tacked or held with pins ready for sewing. Then sewn and trimmed to shape afterwards.

The inflatable section is now gently inflated to check the fit.
Only inflate slightly enough to allow it to almost take shape, but with no stress on the stitching. - This will allow the internal area to push any excess silicone into the gaps where it may leak and reduce any chance of excess or stray internal silicone from sticking the halves together inside. Only inflate with minimal pressure to allow the sealant to cure.
Any extra retaining chest straps on the lightly inflated jacket can be adjusted to support the inflated areas securely to the wearer when in the water.

While inflated, the edges can be trimmed with a little ribbon, glued in place with silicone sealant smeared on the ribbon, held with clothes pegs or paper clips, then lightly stitched by hand using thin thread.

After twenty four hours, the silicone will have cured and unlikely to stick the assembly internally. The ball valve can be depressed, air vented and the jacket checked for any signs of bad stitching. It is then inflated to a working pressure, immersed under water and checked for leaks. The pressure required to hold it under water is about the same as the working pressure.
Make any repairs or modifications as deemed suitable.
If you are not too sure about the stitching are holding the bladder to the harness, then sew some strong support loops from ribbon or harness materials to snugly slide over the area of concern and held lightly in place with silicone sealant.

Some reflective strips from industrial jackets can now be shaped and held in place with dabs of silicone sealant. Position carefully; the reflective strips across the back of the head and sides of the lifejacket where they will be most easily seen by rescuers and especially around any hat.

While inflated, also include a pocket for a whistle and others for your choice of light and heliograph, as described later. The pockets are merely pieces of siliconed cloth stuck in place on the bladder after any external film has been removed to ensure a perfect silicone sealant adhesion. Such pockets usually have drain holes or loosely made corners to allow water to drain out. The whistle is normally a snug fit and must have a tether cord to the harness. Any heliograph or torch will include a securing flap using Velcro to hold them in place, plus the tether cord to the harness. Where an integrated waterproof battery holder and switch unit is used, then this will have a wire loosely held across the jacket by small cloth tabs, so that any permanently fixed light will sit on the highest point of the bladder unit when bobbing about in the sea.

NOTHING should be sewn into the bladder area to compromise reliability. If a whistle and light are needed, then these should be in pouches glued or siliconed in place after removing part of the outer polythene sheet, then secured to the harness with a safety cord. Better that these should fall away and retained by cords rather than the jacket to leak air.

Fitting a permanent battery holder can be done using a waterproof torch body, securely held to the harness, such that the battery unit does not get in the way during normal wearing on deck when folded. If replacing the lamp with wires, and extending them across the inflated chest area, then these can often power a radial set of six flashing red LED's rather than a filament lamp. My choice of battery holder holds three AAA cells and has a waterproof push on / off button on the base, which has been further sealed with alight smear of silicone sealant. It is then tucked away in a small siliconed cloth pouch inside the folded jacket when worn on deck. See later for light designs and choices.

If using a standard torch body, with no modifications, then add a secondary holder with cross positions so the torch body can be stored neatly, but then removed from it s standard holder, and inserted on top of the inflated bladder to sweep the horizon to act as a basic beacon, in four direction s by using two cloth sleeves set at 90 degrees or in a simple X shaped cloth sleeve holder.

The jacket can now be dried, deflated and neatly folded to sit in a compact form on the harness.
Folding the finished jacket should be done carefully by folding the chest halves inwards to be slightly wider than the chest webbing. The neck can also be folded to sit neatly over the back of the shoulders.
The head support is first folded inwards, then the inner chest areas, then covered by the external chest areas.
As can now be seen, the bladder layer which is stitched to the harness is also the outer cover, so can be made from stronger material, perchance chosen also for its colouring or have a second cosmetic layer integrated at the same time as the first silicone cloth was made.
When folded neatly, the whole should be held with small pieces of Velrco(c) in selected places on the edge ribbon to keep it all neat and tidy.

After fitting the details, the jacket is again deflated by using a smooth pencil to depress the valve.

The deflated jacket is now folded to lay flat over the chest and neatly around the neck, and to make sure the other components do not abrade the main bladder, If this is likely then extra padding or cloth is loosely added to ensure the bladder remains pristine for many decades. for example if the whistle or heliograph have sharp corners, then these are removed and extra foam padding included to ensure the packed item is safe from damaging the bladder unit.

Self inflation.
Commercial designs use a large CO2 cylinder and a toggle valve which allows the user to adjust the amount of inflation.

Making your own CO2 inflatable jacket device is not recommended, as an automatic system is complex.
A manual version is easier, using a standard motorcycle tyre inflator CO2 kit and adapting a standard Schrader vehicle valve to take the adapter to the bladder in a similar manner to the inflation tube. this costs about 7 pounds, and three spare CO2 canisters for 4 pounds. Onto this second inflation tube is mounted the compact inflation kit, such that a couple twists of the cylinder will inject the whole capsule of gas, to inflate the jacket. Choose the components wisely and test fully before modifications.
A larger option is to use a fizzy drinks maker, but the cylinders are best only used for larger rafts. The nozzle assembly can be modified to take smaller canisters and then operated by a lever fitted with a toggle.

If you decide to experiment with such devices, always buy a few spare canisters and adapt the design carefully so it remains reliable. For it to be easily accessible, the ability to twist the unit to break the canister seal and inject the CO2 must be close to the bottom of the folded jacket. Modifying a bicycle tyre inflator connector as used for a push bike pump can make this easier and allow the canister to be packed neatly.
The car or motorcycle Schrader valve can be trimmed and fitted into a rubber tube in a similar manner to fixing into the bladder as per the mouth inflatable tube.
Warning: NEVER use a large CO2 cylinder, but a very small one (about the size of a thumb) which will not over-inflate the bladder, otherwise the lifejacket will split, leak and become useless. Preferably use a design which needs to be pressed to inflate, so that only enough CO2 is used for the job, leaving some spare in the cylinder.

Safety: Over pressure relief valve. To make a safety 'over pressure' relief valve into the bladder, a third tube is needed, but this time with a schrader valve inserted in the 'wrong way around'. This standard valve should be modified to allow safe air pressure to remain, but the spring in the valve is often enough to allow over-pressure to escape.
A simpler pressure relief valve can be made by inserting a ball bearing into a piece of thin synthetic rubber pipe such as silicone tubing as used for model aircraft fuel pipe. The ball is loosely retained by a metal bar through the pipe or other method which allows venting. Check by blowing very hard to release the pressure. The ball will maintain the seal until the pressure gets too high, whereupon the pipe will expand and allow air past the ball. This must be tested before use to get the correct pressure. The pressure of normal lungs is more than that needed to stay afloat, so by blowing, the pressure should be about right for most situations.

Ideally, the CO2 cylinder should only be turned enough to inflate the bladder enough for safety, then released to prevent over inflation. Ideally you should be thrown overboard and simply be able to twist the small cylinder enough to inflate moderately quickly but still allow the user to unscrew to prevent over-inflation.
Unfortunately, the small CO2 cylinders are one-shot devices and vent their whole contents in one go. For this reason, only the smallest (thumb sized) CO2 cylinders should be used.

Commercial lifejacket inflators use a toggle and valve so the user has plenty of CO2 left for later use, but the mouth piece is still the only fundamentally reliable method. (Unless your lungs are burnt from an explosion or swimming through flaming petrol or diesel oil on the surface.)

Because lifejackets can be punctured, it is possible to make a multi cell design, but I know of none commercially available. If wanting to make a multi cell device, then it will need two manual inflation pipes and internal walls to separate the two chest bladders and another for the head. The head support cell will also need internal one way valves to inflate this section from either side. As may be discerned making your own depends upon your skill, but is not difficult. The smaller internal valve in the separating walls can be made using flat flaps held in place with springy plastic strips to make simple, one way flap valves which can lie flat when the jacket is folded for wearing on deck.

One step beyond.
If ocean going, then the next step is to make your own one-man liferaft.
A commercial item is preferred for obvious reasons.
But if you don't have that kind of money, the technology is the same, just larger. If you are on a tramp steamer or expecting to take weeks crossing an ocean, then taking the materials with you helps pass the time, but only if you don't sink too soon.
Start with two strong inflatable tubes either side of your body, plus a cross tube at the head and feet made from strong cloth impregnated with silicone sealant. This will allow you to remain or try to get dry, and thus warm, and to sleep while awaiting rescue.
The main tubes need not be neat, merely two strong tubes either side, with the rest merely being there to make a safer, neater design.

For maximum support and reliability, the inner tubes should be covered with strong cloth before assembly. Inflation will need a few CO2 cylinders, although the first cylinder should be enough to inflate you out of danger, then followed by manual inflation. A partially inflated liferaft can be easier to enter.

A simple alternative it to use a kiddies one man toy paddle boat as a former, then cover with strong cloth to protect the inferior membrane, and adapt as needed. Alternatively, use siliconed cloth over the basic inflatable toy inflatable former for making a stronger outer fabric design which is cut and sewn to shape, then siliconed to the core inflatable. The strong core unit is then adapted as needed and stored in a safe carrier with light stitching or Velcro to allow CO2 inflation using a toggle valve from a damaged commercial lifejacket.

If making our own life raft from scratch, then make two strong, main tubes and seal the ends. Then add cross pieces as separate items, so some will remain inflated if the others are punctured. These separate sections can then be sewn together and sealed plus some tape over the sewing to protect and strengthen the stitching areas which are also structural weak points.
The bottom should also be inflatable but fully wrapped over the main side cells and siliconed in place so as not to damage the primary inflation cells.
With a dual layer inflatable base layer, it will increase comfort and insulation in cold waters.
Below the bottom layer should also be included a sea stabiliser, consisting of an unsealed cloth chamber filled with ordinary bath sponge to hold lots of sea water as a keel mass, to prevent turning over. The sponge is easily compressed during packaging and takes up little room or weight. This sponge will absorb sea water and expand, to make a heavy keel to help stabilise the raft in heavy seas. If sponge takes up too much room, then add small lead buttons to the base to this anchor pocket, so it naturally takes up plenty of sea water volume for dynamic stability.

A small roof or cross tube can be added from a separately inflated, curved bicycle inner tube covered in siliconed cloth for reliability and to maintain its structural shape. A bare rubber tube will flex badly and possibly rupture, whereas if covered in a cloth tube, it will take up a more rigid shape dictated by the tailored cloth.
Rather then make lots of small pieces of cloth to make the whole assembly, the basic floatation tubes can be inserted inside a much larger single abrasion resistant sheet to make a tapered tunnel of lightweight, bright orange waterproof cloth to add environmental protection, similar to a tunnel tent.

A minimalist example:
Start by making two long siliconed tubes made from strong nylon cloth, or groundsheet material. Then simple inflation tubes inserted into each section, using old fuel pipe and simple stoppers made from old tooth brushes. The ends sealed and sewn in a X shape. The head and tail cross pieces made in a similar manner, and all four sewn together to make four separate compartments. Turn over, the base is wrapped fully with strong netting or another waterproof layer, preferably both for strength, so the ends of the cross sheet wraps fully over the main tubes and over the tops to offer full strength. Turned back upright, a closed cell foam camping pad can be inserted into the base as a thermal layer, or a separate mini inflatable base layer for comfort and thermal insulation. Camping mat is better, as it can be folded in half to twice its thickness. Being removable, the camping mat is then used to protect the outer layer of the packed liferaft, and being tethered, can be inserted after inflation.
For inflation, the four main pipes can be connected to a fizzy drinks inflation device, gutted from a commercial fizzy drinks maker. These devices are press to operate, so a toggle will probably work quite well. Or a large trigger spring spring to activate, by a simple pull cord and safety R clip. When in use, the fizzy drinks inflator can be replaced by the simple stoppers if you are not good at making valves.
Cheap groundsheet material is light, tough, and abrasion resistant. Making a tunnel tube from this, then inserting the inflation tubes and head and feet cross spacers, can offer a very cheap and surprisingly effective small life raft.
The design will need detail waterproofing, but the essential components are surprisingly simple, and being simple can be robust and reliable.
Total cost for second hand fizzy device, a new cylinder and new materials - about 30 pounds. Can be made at home or on a boat with plenty of time. The biggest cost is the silicone sealant.

It is common to employ a nylon zip or velcro flap at the head end for access: Making a side opening is likely to cause the raft to turn over when trying to enter. - Entering from the head, with a sea keel area at the tail will make access much easier, especially if exhausted or injured.
The upper layer should be a small roof so the occupant does not suffocate, and to offer high visibility without undue windage. A smooth curved roof reduces chances to be blown by the wind. The cross beam above the occupant's head can be made from a kiddies push bike inner tube, siliconed, then rolled over a piece of nylon and sealed then attached to the main tubes to make a simple arch above the head. The inflation valve can retain the push bike cycle valve and a modified valve which is easier to inflate.
Any roof should be collapsible or have plenty of zip window panels so the occupant can constantly scan the horizon in good weather.
Any roof should include a gutter to catch rain water and channel via a pipe into sealable plastic storage bags.
This can include an outer nylon mesh cloth to catch the rain before it falls away, with a thin waterproof backing and a gutter along the base made from siliconed cloth with a drain pipe. The nylon mesh can catch fresh rain water and allow it to drain to the gutter, thence to the sealable bags. The pipe can be plugged to prevent the raft getting sea water in heavy seas. As rain appears in conjunction with bad weather, then the upper edges of the roof should catch the rain, with the lower half of the roof splash resistant to sea water to reduce contamination. The bottom of the rain catching will have a drain pipe to collect the rain.

Add a sponge for removing the sea water which enters.
A PUR survivor 06 desalinator or similar is also recommended if far from land or shipping channels or in warm climes with little rain.

Also include a sea anchor consisting of a small underwater parachute design. The sea anchor should be free to deploy immediately it is operated as you don't want to swim after a raft that's being blown away !
Also include along external tether cord that can trail behind. Use orange polypropylene as it floats on the surface and is easily caught. 200 feet is ideal, but 100 feet may suffice if not too windy. The free end of the polypropylene cord should end in a bright yellow vertically bobbing float.

Packing ready for use.
The simplest protective cover is to wrap in a camping mat and secure with small pieces of velcro. Camping foam is strong, light, abrasion resistant and offers extra buoyancy.
Getting into these designs is difficult but helps pass the time in training sessions, so include a foot loop outside and a hand loop inside to help you enter the mini 'bouncy castle', especially if the seas are heavy. Life rafts are easier to enter if NOT fully inflated and will not drift so badly in high winds with a soggy roof and a sea anchor drogue.

The whole unit should be protected in a strong abrasive resistant cover, but easy to throw overboard, held by a tether, which will also pull the CO2 toggle if one is fitted. The CO2 toggle can also be the tether if securely attached to the body of the liferaft and attached to the boat by a breakable activating cord should the boat sink.
The deck holder should allow the unit to float when the boat sinks, and preferably activate automatically upon leaving its holder.

Fitting out.
Life rafts always include survival kit for a week or more.
See check list mentioned earlier.
It is possible to buy foil packets of water, but they cost daft money. The purpose of storing water with the liferaft, is just as easily done by buying bottles of mineral water, emptying a little so they will float, and adding string tethers around their necks, then sticking them inside or strongly tethered to the liferaft container. Another option is to make a small floating container to fit in with the liferaft, so that the water, foods, medicines and batteries can be changed without upsetting the main package. When the liferaft is thrown overboard and inflated, the support package will float nearby, held by strong tethers.
Strong sealable water pockets are now becoming easier to find for free, such as strong sealable packets which hold pieces of Old English fudge, a high energy food and will hold a pint of water even when held upside down and shaken. They should not be used for long tern storing of water, but for later use in the liferaft. They fold flat and highly recommended for inserting inside a liferaft. Similar packaging is available world wide.

Add a small plastic sextant and a good time piece, regularly checked. A cheap digital watch can be bought with a 10 year battery and set to GMT for estimating longitude. Check and set yearly. Rough navigation can help you drift or sail towards the main shipping lanes or main tidal runs, or towards the nearest coast.
An expensive GPS beacon is possible for immediate rescue, plus the standard emergency beacons, with spare batteries stored separately and changed yearly.
Always include a repair kit of a tube of silicone sealant, strong cloth, coarse thread and a curved needle, a tapered rubber bung and a sponge. the rubber bung must be able to plug any hole, so it should be long, and taper from nothing up to a couple of inches diameter and made of hard rubber. They can be carved from old car suspension rubber bump stops.

Add many sealable water bags, a solar still, strobe or LED lights, flares - smoke for day and parachute for night and the other items mentioned which should be included with you. A radar reflector can also be added using a bamboo pole and some thick aluminium foil from a thick disposable alloy cooking dish. Also the other stuff mentioned earlier.

Summary.
It is most unlikely that very few will make their own liferaft except for experimentation, or to make specialist kit, or to modify commercial designs, but the technology and cost is so piffling that there is no excuse for being safe at sea.
If you are not going to buy a liferaft and rely upon a lifejacket, then you can always spend lazy days afloat making a basic liferaft. It makes good sense and costs little. Even just two basic tubes and a joining mesh allows you to float more comfortably and a little extra waterproof cloth will allow you to get dry and thus warm, vastly extending your chances of living.

Remember:
By knowing how such devices are made, you can at least appreciate and look after any lifejacket or liferaft that you may unwittingly find yourself using when least expected, be it on a boat or plane, or possibly your most memorable holiday.

Your safety is in your own hands.

There are no excuses at sea.

Cold Waters.
Not everyone sails where the sea is the same temperature as a bath.
In cold water, I assume you are wearing warm clothing.
Dry suits are used by mariners in cold water.
We are not all sailors and if on a cruise ship, or fitting out a lifejacket or liferaft for colder water, then be prepared.

Even on a cruise ship, most of the items you need to survive are commonly available.
As the extremities chill first, then you may wish to add a pair of plastic gloves from a garage forecourt to help reduce heat loss. Simple rubber bands around the wrists will help keep water out. The gloves can be lined with thin ordinary cotton gloves, then rolled up in a compressed form for small storage. Remember, this is merely simple survival assistance, so nothing special, just effectively keeping the warmer water close to your skin. The same can be done with simple plastic tubes to make socks, as wearing shoes while swimming is rare.
Include a compactly folded, large rubbish bin liner. This can be used to cover the legs and lower body, tied about the waist, it may not stop heat loss from water, but at least keep your warmer water close to your body.
Remember: You may not be able to have a full immersion dry-suit, or even a wet-suit, but anything which improves your chances must be considered, especially if it costs pennies and takes up next to no room.
You may very well wish to include a safety knife, a long length of string, bottle of water. Ideally a flare and emergency radio or beacon, but this is normally beyond the level of home made kit, whereupon a professionally made life jacket is recommended and then properly kitted out.

Five bin bags, a CD, a bottle or mineral water, a torch (flashlight), an old polypropylene fleece clothing and some string costs very little. Stuff it all in a small shopping bag and place it where you can reach it in emergency.

Simple, low cost items can save lives.
Survival kit and preparation must always be done BEFORE it is needed. Do it NOW.

No Prep. No Hope. (Pink gin boaties.)
If you are foolish enough to go to sea with no concern for safety until its too late, then you deserve what you get.
(Frankly, having seen some of the 'boaties' in Plymouth, I'm not surprised many would prefer them to go home and leave the sea to learn the hard way, perhaps helped by those who know what they are doing.)

Survival prep.
See also swimming page.
On small craft such as yachts, always ensure you wear a lifejacket before leaving shore.
A slipway is justly named and many accidents occur here.
Always wear your buoyancy aid or life jacket before entering the dinghy to the boat, as most accidents happen going to and from the mooring, especially at night. For this reason I always like to have my light on the buoyancy aid such that it also acts as a means to illuminate the dark scene on the shore and alongside the boat, especially as many slipways are indeed slippery.
On passenger ferries, check out where the lifejackets are and any life boats and buoyancy aids.
As you may not be a strong swimmer or far from shore or not too sure where the shore may be, then remaining with the last radioed position of the craft is important. If your dinghy has a sea anchor, then use it, especially if you have reported your position.
In cold waters, you must retain as much heat as possible. This will require waterproof clothing or plenty of clothing to retain heat. Wool and synthetic fleeces are particularly good at repelling water. Lots of clothing will require buoyancy.
In Arctic water, some sailors say that a quick death is the best way to go. I do not agree.
If in Arctic waters, look for specialist immersion 'dry suit' or a RAF style mini one man life raft with cover. In cold waters it is important to keep dry and thus warm, so find some form of raft, boat or other means to keep out of the water. If you do get wet, you must dry off immediately upon reaching a raft or other means of keeping out of the water. Modesty is not important - wring your clothes dryer at the earliest opportunity.

With no preparation, then ideally grab some dry, waterproof clothes and stuff them into a polythene bags tied with a very long length of string, about ten feet long, should you have to jump overboard and dive to eight feet before resurfacing, tied to your waist before entering the water. This bag will also act as a buoyancy aid until you reach a raft.
The bin bags with warm clothes stuffed inside and the ends tied will make a reasonable buoyancy aid. Don't hang on to it if jumping into the water from a height, as you may rip the plastic. Far safer to stuff three bin bags, one inside the other. If windy, tie a long piece of string to it and to your waist. If you tie it to your wrist, it will be harder to swim. The longer the string, the less chance of ripping the bag.
If possible, add a small mirror or CD, torch (flashlight), whistle and a bottle of drinking water. (Bin bags, a CD and woollen clothes or synthetic fleeces, and plastic bottles of water are not difficult to find on a cruise.)

In many cases there will be a lifeboat or life raft. On ships, you may have to jump into the water, but ALWAYS first look for the safety rope down into the liferaft so you don't get wet. This is extremely important in cold climates, where you will otherwise have minutes to live if you enter cold water, or just get wet.
If you must jump into the water, keep your arms over your chest, take a deep breath, hold your nose and jump feet first, out from the ship. Try to enter the water feet first. Do not enter the water very close to the ship. The deep breath will soon bring you to the surface. Only then should you fully inflate the lifejacket. If you are worried about returning to the surface, the lifejacket can be partially inflated by mouth before jumping. A fully inflated lifejacket can be damaged by a long jump into the water. If the life jacket is fully inflated, then try not to jump from a high position, or partially deflate then try to protect the jacket with your arms. If a buoyancy aid, then you can jump as the floats will but be damaged, but cover them with your arms to prevent them from being ripped off.

Always treat your life saving equipment with great care. If you take care of it, it can then take care of you.

To enter a rubber life raft, ask the others to balance the craft and not to all crowd around the entrance to help you. If one other, they should be opposite the entrance to prevent capsizing. If you are the only one, then roll or crawl in a sprawled manner into the raft, to keep it from overturning. Help the others in, then take a few minutes to calm down, then read the primary instructions printed on the sides. Deploy any sea anchors if needed to remain near the wreckage or its last known point, so you can help others and be found more easily.
If the raft has capsized, then there are foot and hand holds on the bottom of the raft to help you to turn it upright using your body weight.
Once inside, do not worry about modesty but wring your upper clothes dry as soon as possible. If others are soaking wet, get them to do the same. Use the sponge or a T shirt to help keep the raft dry during wringing.

If there are many rafts, try to join up with them as soon as possible and even out the numbers of occupants. The more people there are, the greater the chance of there being experts in fishing, navigation, sailing and other survival techniques, and as a group, you can be more easily seen by search and rescue.

Truly Desperate.
If there is no organised help or equipment, then you must prepare to keep warm and also create reliable buoyancy.
In cold waters and without specialist survival clothing, then the few minutes you have before entering the water are vitally important.
If possible, use any wetsuit or other option. If nothing, then put warm dense clothing close to our skin and then a layer of waterproofs, or such as bin bags or whatever. Then an outer layer and your life jacket. This will not keep you dry, but it will at least keep the warm water close to your skin, to help reduce your heat loss.
Three strong bin bags and some strong, wide tape is not as good as an immersion suit, but far better than nothing. Don't forget a warm hat. As some plastic bags are not very strong, use three or more inside one another, then throw a life raft or wooden door or whatever is available overboard, then climb down to the raft or gently lower yourself into the water rather than jumping, then swim away to any lifeboat.
Once in the water, if you cannot find a raft or decent buoyancy, then at least you have the option of ditching excess clothing, but not the reverse option. Therefore you should consider adding more clothes in a bin bag or many bags, tied up and sealed for extra buoyancy. Keep the CD heliograph and torch (and any flares) tied to your waist, outside of the floatation bags, ready for instant use should you see a rescue craft. You will not need the water for a few days.
You can survive for many days without food, but you must carry some drinking water. Even just a couple of bottles of mineral water are better than nothing. Plastic bottles of fresh water are lighter than sea water, but nevertheless, drink what fresh water you can, then add some air to the full bottles and some retaining cords so they won't drift away.
Use any shade and regular splashes of sea water to avoid sweating if on a raft in equatorial waters.
See also my website for a monograph on DIY solar stills.

Place all unwanted buoyancy items on deck such as seats, inflatable toys etc. so they can escape the sinking ship. Even if you never use them, they can act as guides for search and rescue teams. Tie them together to save swimming about for bits and pieces and to make a basic raft.

You will be in the water - so loosing the CD or whistle or drinking water will be permanent. You are not on the ground and cannot pick them up again. Therefore all items must have a belt or wrist or neck cord so they do not get lost when your fingers go cold and loose their grip. Sticking a piece of buoyancy foam to some items can help, but at night in oily or choppy waters, this will not help much. A long length of string can be worth its weight in gold.

Eventually you should be ready to leave the ship. Do this before it sinks, as there can be an undercurrent which can drag you down, so get clear as soon as possible and check how any tide is running. The ship will probably be drifting so the water any be relatively calm, so get clear as soon as possible.

Lumbering gently down into the water with many poly bags of clothes for floatation, layers of warm clothes, strings of water bottles, a heliograph and torch, you may look daft, but should be that much more ready to survive, swim clear using your arms, then to find help, from yourself and with others.

Now you are in the water.
Hopefully you can lie back and not exert yourself. If very lucky, you may not be wet, nor cold.
Time to take stock of the situation and if you can, to help others. Check that helping others will not cause both of you to die, otherwise decide to help some people, as best as possible.
A panicking person should be offered spare buoyancy until they calm down, as if they panic too much then they will expend energy fast and may not last long.
Panicking people are looking for help - so even a best guess of some reasonable spoken orders, given with confidence and authority will be better than anything else. Just make sure they do not damage the situation and make it far worse for everybody. Loud mouths and bullies can ruin whatever chances are possible, so carefully check then choose that you help the most sensible people first, so they in turn may help others.

Prepare for all potential rescue or survival opportunities.
If windy, then try to grab everything useful that may blow away. Use that ball of string.
Look for extra floatation items, from simple pieces of wood to liferafts.
If windy, grab the life rafts together as soon as possible, deploy sea anchors then go searching for survivors.
If nothing, then grab all the wood you can, and prepare to lash something together if possible, preferably to get you out of the water and any cooling wind.
Once the situation is stabilised, look about for all possible debris which may be of use, including equipment on those who have died. If you are likely to be rescued within hours, then you may wish to tether the bodies nearby. But if rescue is unlikely, then check for personal details for the authorities before sensitively committing their souls to the deep.
Get the heliograph ready for daytime use. Likewise the flares and torch at night. Always have one person on look-out duty.
If any ice is floating nearby, grab it for drinking water, the bluer the ice, the better. A smooth chunk of blue ice inside a bin liner floating nearby on a cord is a drinking water supply.
Try to get off the cold water and onto an ice floe, preferably out of the wind, but always be prepared for the floe to turn over at any time as the base melts. You can partially dry out wet clothing by rolling in any snow, which soaks up excess water, but always try to wring out your clothes then shake dry as soon as possible if the situation is safe enough to do so. Three minutes naked, means many hour being much warmer.
Climbing onto an iceberg is dangerous, but recommended if only to dry out for a few hours and out of the wind. They can turn over, so never place yourself in a position where you cannot immediately abandon the iceberg. A big, flat ice floe is better than an iceberg. Build up shelter, but never allow yourself to get trapped. You may be able to rock the iceberg to check the deterioration of its stability over time, and be prepared to ditch. Warning - sharp ice can cut through rubber rafts, so always check when approaching loose ice.

If you are near the shore, then the options can include abandoning, or staying onboard the ship until the storm has cleared. Ships break up easily on rocks and should never be considered a guaranteed safe area as they can turn over and break up. Often it's better to get clear before it destroys itself. To get clear, again follow the above choices and if the wind is onto a gentle shore, consider a liferaft. If a rocky shore, always wear boots or shoes and try to reach a rocky shore feet first, so you can protect yourself before finding a secure hand hold. Stay off the rocks until you have checked the way the sea breaks upon them, then time your approach to be as safe as possible. If a rocky shore, and you have gloves, lightweight cycle or skateboard safety gear and a helmet or anything similar, then use them.

Conserve your energy.
Swimming should be as efficient as possible and only to keep your head above water. With adequate buoyancy, no swimming should be needed other than to reach something and even then, the swimming should be as efficient as possible. If the item is likely to float further away due to the wind, such as a damaged liferaft which may be repaired or used as a marker, then grab it as soon as possible and use the string to stay secured until you have strength to get aboard.
Take note of tides and if possible make best use of them. You may have to wait a few hours. If an outgoing tide, then try to drift and look for a place with no estuary, or wait until the tide is to your advantage and then swim with the tide to shore.
Warning: Some estrurial currents can be extremely dangerous, so stay clear of tidal estuaries wherever possible.
You must conserve energy, so any swimming fruitlessly against a tide, even when near a shore can lead to a dangerous situation. You only have your lifejacket and the energy from your last decent meal to save you - use them well.
Always stay clear of dangerous tides especially near constricted estuaries where the currents can be extremely dangerous.

Grab bag.
All good sailors keep a 'grab pack' which contains survival equipment.
This may be big, including a liferaft, to just a small pack with a life jacket, some water, a medical kit and fishing kit.

The earlier list describes professional levels of a grab bag.

The classic grab bag is a tough waterproof cylindrical cloth bag about the same size as a duffle bag or your torso, into which all is put. The sealing of these classic bags is now done by rolling the open ends and folding it shut with a piece of webbing and small buckle. This simple closure ensures good waterproofing with reliable sealing, and if the buckle end is weighted, or held to support the owner in the water, then air cannot escape and it will float like a buoy in the water.
Such a bag is simple to make to personal specs, using siliconed bright orange or yellow cloth and a simple cheap luggage strap with plastic snap buckle. They are also very easy to store by hanging from the strap to prevent moving in a storm. They cost a fortune in chandlers, but would cost under a fiver if made at home. The bottom of these should be given a protective layer or padded with clothing as they are often thrown on board from the harbour wall.
If you decide to use such bags, then always include a strong (polycarbonate) bottle of water, some high energy food, fishing kit and standard emergency items, all protected by spare clothing to pad out the buoyancy of the design. A long, thin tether cord neatly tucked away in an external pocket or tucked into the upper folds is also useful in emergency or if bad at throwing onboard from the harbour wall in bad weather.

In cold climates, a warm fleece in a sealed polythene bag will also help for both warmth and floatation. An oiled woolly will repel moisture and dry faster. There are also modern quick-dry materials available. A solar still is important if far from rescue. The design of your grab bag will depend upon what you consider important for the trip.

All good grab packs include a selection of notes to help the user to make the best of the situation. Sea survival equipment includes a mirror or heliograph (or if nothing better, a CD) to alert rescue craft using the sun. A torch (flashlight) preferably with a strong, narrow beam for alerting others at night and a general sweep of the horizon.
Many types of popular modern waterproof torches have heads which can be focused, but also removed. If greased, then this allows the user to leave the head off and stick into a hat to act as a general beacon, then replace the head to signal to any passing ship with a focused, more powerful beam. (Assuming your fingers are still working and you have not allowed the torch head to sink.
It is highly recommended to strip a torch (flashlight) and spray with silicone maintenance spray or a good dollop of silicone grease over the contacts where such devices invariably corrode with time.

Once you can swim, take every opportunity to improve your skills.
On the beach holiday, see how long you can spend in the sea without undue effort, but never allow yourself to drift into a dangerous situation.
Find out if you can you catch a fish and cook it on the shore using only what is available. Can you make a solar still from two pop bottles and a piece of cloth ?

Enjoy your work, leisure and holidays afloat, but don't be like the many stupid and often dangerous 'boaties' who mess up the enjoyment of so many others.

Have a better, lawyer free day :)

J.Partridge. B.Ed. B.Sc.
Gizzajob.

Always try to improve society rather than just take from it. Until then, lawyer stuff. Copying or duplication of this material is prohibited without written permission of the author. No one should read nor act upon this information. The content is for information only. No responsibility is accepted for any damage or any injury caused by the above information. Errors and omissions excepted. No-one should try anything in the modern world without reasonable abilities and know that injuries can ensue from the materials, tools and from testing.
Have a nice (lawyer free) day.

Copyright (C) J.Partridge. 1999. 2003. 2005. 2007.