The Census

Official count of the population of a country, originally for military call-up and taxation, later for assessment of social trends as other information regarding age, sex, and occupation of each individual was included. They may become unnecessary as computerised data banks are developed. The data collected are used by government departments in planning for the future in such areas as health, education, transport, and housing. Most countries have a census of some sort. In the UK, a census has been conducted every ten years since 1801. Although the information about individual households remains secret for 100 years, data is available on groups of households down to about 200 (an enumeration district), showing such characteristics as age and sex structure, employment, housing types, car ownership, and qualifications held. The larger-scale information on population numbers, movements, and origins is published as a series of reports by the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys. The most recent census took place on 21 April 1991. The first US census was taken in 1790.

Beginning in 1801, and excepting 1941, a census has been held in Britain every ten years. The first four censuses were little more than simple head counts of the population. In 1841 the first modern census was held. Each householder was required to complete a census schedule giving the address of the household, the names, ages, sexes, occupations and places of birth of each individual living in his or her accommodation. In 1851 householders were asked to give more precise details of the places of birth of each resident, to state their relationships to him or her, marital status's and the nature of any disabilities from which they may have suffered. Apart from a few minor changes the basic structure of the census schedule did not change until 1891. Householders were then asked how many rooms (if less then five) their family occupied. Additional occupational data was collected and, in Wales, people were asked to say if they spoke the Welsh language.

After being collected by enumerators the census schedules were copied into census enumerators' books (CEBs). The CEBs were then sent to London where census clerks used them to compute various local and national statistics. Although the original census schedules have long been since destroyed the CEBs were kept. After being locked away for 100 hundred years the CEBs are made public and we consider in this paper their usefulness in studying nineteenth-century society.

Illiteracy. Unfortunately, the Victorian censuses were undertaken at a time when up to half the adult population were illiterate or semiliterate. Many householders would, therefore, have found it difficult to read and interpret the instructions, and this would have led them to give inaccurate and incomplete information. Moreover, it seems likely that, because of poor spelling and poor presentation, enumerators would have found it difficult to read some of their census schedules. This, in turn, would have led to transcription errors.

Reading the CEBs. The first problem relates to reading the census enumerator's books. The 1841 CEBs were completed in pencil and cheap ink was often used to complete the CEBs in later censuses. Consequently the CEBs can be difficult to read, the more so where, as often happens, the researcher is using microfilm copies or photocopies of the original books.

Number of Rooms. Unfortunately, of the CEBs made public only those for 1891 give information on the numbers of rooms occupied by each household so it is not possible to comment on the accuracy of this information. It should, however, be mentioned that no instructions were given on the census schedule what was a room. Were, for example, large cupboards or indoor toilets to be counted as rooms? One example, of an enumerator misinterpreting his instructions has been found by the writer in his researches into nineteenth-century Warrington. The enumerator having placed the figure '1' (one) against the address of each householder whose family occupied fewer than five rooms. At least one street enumerated by him, still stands today, and it consists of four-roomed terraces.

Definition of a Household. Another problem is that of what constituted a household. The instructions given to the enumerators were vague. This has affected in particular how lodgers, boarders and different families renting rooms in the same houses have been enumerated. In some instance's families of lodgers appear to have been treated as occupiers in their right. On other occasion's families co-residing at the same address have been treated as lodgers. The extent of this problem is difficult to quantify. But, because there were few complex (i.e. non-nuclear) households in nineteenth-century Britain, it is unlikely to be a serious problem.

People's Names. Few problems exist relating to people's names although it should be mentioned that the spelling of surnames only gradually became standardised after 1837 with the state registration of births, marriages and deaths. When attempting to link households and families across censuses this can create problems but a little imagination can usually sort them out. Houghton, for example, might become Houghton or Oughton.

Ages. Especially in the early years of last century many people did not know their correct ages, and for older people's age-data should, therefore, be treated with some caution. Moreover, at a time when the age of consent was 21 householders below this age often had an incentive to falsify their ages to rent accommodation and enter into legally binding contracts. Similarly the ages of child workers appear on occasion to have been falsified to circumvent the various factory ages. Charles Shaw, for example, born in Tunstall in 1832 is shown as an eleven-year potter in the 1841 census. Anderson's (1972: 75) examined the accuracy of age data by linking individuals across censuses. He concluded that age data is fairly accurate and those errors he found tended to be small.

Occupations. A number of problems exist in interpreting the occupational data: a) job titles are sometimes vague with little or no information given on either the industry of employment or the actual job undertaken (in nineteenth-century Warrington, for example, a 'cutter, might be a 'glass cutter', a 'fustian cutter' or a 'file cutter'); b) it is often to distinguish between dealers and makers (e.g. Did a baker bake or sell bread?); and c) although people were asked to say how many people - if any - they employed it is often difficult to distinguish employers from the self-employed and employees. For example, in the Hanley CEBs, for 1881, the writer classified a 'builder' as a manual worker only to find on examination of the rate book that he owned several houses having presumably employed other people to build them for him. More fundamental problems exist in using occupational data for women and children. Higgs (1987) believes that the occupations of many women, and especially of those in part-time work and/or working at home, were not recorded in the census. Again, aggregate census statistics published in the 1841 and 1851 Census Volumes for those areas covered by the reports of the various Children's Employment Commissions suggest that the occupations of children were often under-enumerated.

Birth places. Anderson (1972: 75) looked at the consistency of birth place data in Preston in the 1851 and 1861 censuses. He found discrepancies to exist in roughly 14% of cases, but in half these cases the discrepancies tended to be insignificant. One discrepancy found by the writer concerned a women shown as born in 'Ireland' in the 1881 census and 'At Sea' in the 1891 census.

Medical Disabilities. The least accurate data collected was the information sought on disabilities. The question was poorly worded and the replies given are often of little use. Higgs (1989: 76) quotes a study in Wales in which replies to this question included 'unhealthy from birth,' 'helpless' and 'not well.' Many householders appear to have been reluctant to admit that a member of their family was an 'idiot' and when this description was changed to 'feeble-minded' in 1901 the numbers recorded as mentally ill rose markedly (Higgs, 1989: 75).

Column 1	Place, i.e. address
Column 2	Houses; separate columns for uninhabited or being built and inhabited
Column 3	Names
Column 4	Age; separate columns for males and females
Column 5	Profession, trade, employment or of independant means
Column 6	Where born; whether born in same county (Y or N), whether born in Scotland (S), Ireland (I), or foreign parts (F)
The 1841 census is the first useful genealogical census for England & Wales. You will see that no relationships are given - except occasionally in column 5 where you may see Farmer's Wife or similar. All ages 15 and above should have been rounded down to the nearest 5 year multiple, i.e. ages shown as 15 may be 15-19, ages shown as 20 may be 20-24, etc. Another point to remember for ages is that people often said that they "were in their 60th year" meaning that they had passed their 59th birthday. If a person gave information meaning they were in their 60th year, they will be shown as being 60, whereas strictly keeping to the rules, they should be recorded as 55.

Column 1	No. of schedule, numbered from 1 consecutively per book
Column 2	Name of street, place or road, and name or number of house
Column 3	Name and surname
Column 4	Relationship to head of house
Column 5	Condition; marital status
Column 6	Age; separate columns for males and females
Column 7	Rank, profession or occupation
Column 8	Where born; county/place
Column 9	Whether blind, deaf-and-dumb

Column 1	No. of schedule, numbered from 1 consecutively per book
Column 2	Name of street, place or road, and name or number of house
Column 3	Houses; separate columns for inhabited and uninhabited or being built (entered as 'U' or 'B')
Column 4	Name and surname
Column 5	Relationship to head of family
Column 6	Condition; marital status
Column 7	Age; separate columns for males and females
Column 8	Rank, profession or occupation
Column 9	Where born; county/place
Column 10	Whether blind, deaf-and-dumb

Column 1	No. of schedule, numbered from 1 consecutively per book
Column 2	Name of street, place or road, and name or number of house
Column 3	Houses; separate columns for inhabited and uninhabited or being built
Column 4	Name and surname
Column 5	Relationship to head of family
Column 6	Condition; marital status
Column 7	Age; separate columns for males and females
Column 8	Rank, profession or occupation
Column 9	Where born; county/place
Column 10	Whether 1 Deaf & dumb, 2 Blind, 3 Imbecile or idiot, 4 Lunatic

Column 1	No. of schedule, numbered from 1 consecutively per book
Column 2	Name of street, place or road, and name or number of house
Column 3	Houses; separate columns for inhabited and uninhabited or being built (entered as 'U' or 'B')
Column 4	Name and surname
Column 5	Relationship to head of family
Column 6	Condition; marital status
Column 7	Age last birthday; separate columns for males and females
Column 8	Rank, profession or occupation
Column 9	Where born; county/place
Column 10	Whether 1 Deaf & dumb, 2 Blind, 3 Imbecile or idiot, 4 Lunatic

Column 1	No. of schedule, numbered from 1 consecutively per book
Column 2	Name of street, place or road, and name or number of house
Column 3	Houses; separate columns for inhabited and uninhabited or being built (entered as 'U' or 'B')
Column 4	Number of rooms occupied if less than five
Column 5	Name and surname
Column 6	Relationship to head of family
Column 7	Condition; marital status
Column 8	Age last birthday; separate columns for males and females
Column 9	Rank, profession or occupation
Column 10	Employer; 'X' inserted
Column 11	Employed; 'X' inserted
Column 12	Neither employer nor employed; 'X' inserted
Column 13	Where born; county/place
Column 14	Whether 1 Deaf & dumb, 2 Blind, 3 Lunatic, Imbecile or Idiot
In Wales and Monmouthshire only, the 1891 household schedules and enumeration books had an extra column for 'Language Spoken' which required either 'English', 'Welsh' or 'Both' to be entered.

Column 1	No. of schedule, numbered from 1 consecutively per book
Column 2	Name of street, place or road, and name or number of house
Column 3	Houses; separate columns for inhabited, in occupation, not in occupation, being built
Column 4	Number of rooms occupied if less than five
Column 5	Name and surname
Column 6	Relationship to head of family
Column 7	Condition; marital status
Column 8	Age last birthday; separate columns for males and females
Column 9	Rank, profession or occupation
Column 10	Employer, worker, or on own account; answer to be written
Column 11	If working at home; answer to be written
Column 12	Where born; county/place
Column 13	Whether 1 Deaf & dumb, 2 Blind, 3 Lunatic, 4 Imbecile, feeble-minded
Wales and Monmouthshire only, the 1901 household schedules and enumeration books had an extra column for 'Language Spoken' which required either 'English', 'Welsh' or 'Both' to be entered.

The master or keeper of every public or charitable institution was to act as the enumerator of the inmates thereof. These institutions were defined as every gaol, prison, penitentiary, house of correction, hulk or prison ship, workhouse, almshouse, hospital, infirmary, asylum, madhouse, public school, endowed school, college, barrack, and 'other public or charitable institution'. Institutions not subject to these special arrangements were treated as if they were households by the normal enumerators. The institutional books are usually associated with the areas in which they stood. In 1841 they can usually be found at the end of the household returns for the place concerned, or at the end of the returns for the hundred in which they lay. In later years they can be found at the end of the returns for the relevant place, or for the registration district. The returns have also been microfilmed in this order. Indexes held at the Family Records Centre will give the appropriate census piece number. From 1851 onwards the information on the residents of the institution should have been entered in a set order. First, the master or head of the institution, and then his or her spouse, children, other relatives, and servants. Then the officers, their families and servants, visitors and so on. The inmates should then be enumerated in their turn. It is almost impossible to reconstruct the possible relationships between inmates within institutions since only their status within the institution is given. In 1861 it is even difficult to identify inmates by name since only initials needed to be returned.

Soldiers in barracks in England and Wales were always enumerated in the same manner as the inmates of other institutions. Small barracks were treated as private households to be enurnerated by the ordinary enumerator. Barracks large enough to be treated separately were returned in institutional books by the resident barrack or quarter master. The position of barrack returns in the records is similar to that of other institutions.

The returns made for naval vessels in 1841 and 1851 do not appear to have survived. In 1861 the returns for such vessels in both home and foreign waters can be found at the end of the record class, with those for the merchant marine. Thereafter only the returns of naval vessels at sea or in foreign waters were placed at the end of the record class. The schedules for those in British ports can usually be found at the end of the household returns for the registration district in which the port lay.

From 1861 onwards, special naval schedules were used to record the names and relevant details of the officers and crew. The naval schedules of 1861 to 1881 contain columns for name and surname, rank or rating ('quality' in 1861), condition, age, and birthplace. These returns relate to passengers as well as to servicemen. The schedules of 1891 and 1901 contain columns for name and surname, relation to vessel (member of the crew, etc.), condition as to marriage, age last birthday, profession or occupation, whether employer, employee or self-employed (for passengers only), birthplace, and medical disabilities.

No schedules appear to have been issued in 1841. Shipping schedules were issued in 1851 but very few appear to have survived. The 1861 schedules can be found at the end of the household returns with those for the Royal Navy. In 1871, 1881 and 1891 the shipping returns are usually at the end of the household returns for the place or port to which the ships were nearest on census night, or at which they delivered their schedules.

Throughout the period 1841-91 the crew and passengers of merchant vessels of whatever nationality who were on shore on census night were treated as other land dwellers and enumerated in the household returns. The enumeration of the crews and passengers of merchant ships who were on board ships on census night was far more complex.

On 15 March 1851 the customs officers gave a ship's schedule to the master of every British ship in port. They also gave one to the master of every British ship which arrived at the port unprovided with a schedule from that day until census day, 30 March. Early on the morning of 31 March, the customs officers collected the returns filled up by the masters of the ships in port on that day. Ships engaged in the home trade which were at sea on census night were supplied, either before their departure or on their return, with ships' schedules, which were collected as the vessels arrived in British ports from 31 March to the last day of April. On the last day of April the ships' schedules collected were sent direct to the Census Office in London.

The 1851 ship's schedule was, with minor changes, used throughout the nineteenth century, the only major additions being extra columns to bring the information sought into line with the household schedules. On the front of the schedule the master of the ship was to indicate the port to which the ship belonged, its name, its registration number and date of registration, its tonnage, whether it was employed in the home trade, conveying passengers or fishing, the name of the master, and the number of his master's certificate. He was also to record the date and port at which he received the schedule, the position of the ship at midnight on 30 March 1851, and the port at which he delivered the schedule. Inside, the master was to indicate the names of the passengers and crew the number of the master or mate's certificate, the number of the register ticket, if people were members of the crew ('C'), passengers ('P') or visitors ('V'), their condition as to marriage, their sex ('M' or 'F'), their age last birthday their rank, profession or occupation, their birthplace, and the usual medical disabilities. In later censuses a box was also provided in which the master inserted the number of persons from the vessel on shore on census night. In 1901 their names and full census details had to be given. Information on whether the vessel was powered by steam or sails was sought from 1891.

In 1861, a ship's schedule similar to that of 1851, was given by the customs officers to the master of every British foreign going, home-trade and coasting ship or vessel in port on 25 March, or which arrived between that day and census day, 7 April. These were to be collected on 8 April. On the arrival in port of any British home trade or coasting vessel between that day and 7 May, the master was to be asked if he had handed in his census return at any UK port. If not he was requested to fill up a ship's schedule and to hand it to the customs officer. Another schedule was used by the customs officers to record the number of persons who slept on board ships of foreign nations or British colonies on census night, distinguishing between foreigners and British subjects, and by sex. This was done by the enumerators who went on board such ships on 8 April.

The arrangements in 1871 were slightly different. Ships schedules were to be delivered to all British and foreign vessels which arrived in port from 25 March until census day on 2 April. These were collected in port on 3 April. Further forms were only to be handed to British vessels in the coasting and home trade which arrived in port from that day until 2 May. Thus, foreign vessels in port on census day were fully enumerated for the first time. This process was repeated in 1881, the respective periods being 26 March to 3 April, and 4 April to 3 May.

The system of enumeration changed once more in 1891. Ships' schedules were to be left on board all vessels, whether British, foreign or colonial, which were in port on 30 March, or which arrived up until 5 April, census day. Such schedules were also to be given to every British vessel and every foreign vessel 'employed in the coasting trade of the United Kingdom' arriving between 6 April and 30 June. All vessels in port on census day were now fully enumerated, as were all British vessels, and foreign vessels engaged in the UK coasting trade, which arrived in port in the period up to the end of June.

As with other shipping, no attempt was made to enumerate fishing vessels in 1841. The surviving accounts of the 1851 census are not detailed enough to reconstruct the position in that year. The 1851 ship's schedule, however, asked the master to state if his ship was employed in the home trade, conveying passengers, or fishing. Fishing vessels may, therefore, have been treated in the same manner as other vessels.

In 1861 fishing vessels were to be given ships' schedules if they were in port on 4 April, or arrived between then and census day 7 April. But whereas all British coasting and home-trade vessels arriving up until 7 May were also to be given a schedule, only fishing vessels arriving up until 20 April were to be so treated. Fishing vessels were handled in a similar manner in 1871 and 1881, except that in the period before census night they were now treated in a similar manner to other vessels. Whilst other British vessels arriving in port after census night were given ships' schedules from 3 April to 2 May in 1871, and from 4 April to 3 May in 1881, fishing vessels only received them up until 14 and 15 April respectively. In 1891 and 1901, however, British fishing vessels, and 'every fishing boat of foreign nationality which brings fish regularly to ports of the UK', were to be treated in the same manner as other vessels. This simplification of procedures corresponds to that for the enumeration of other vessels in this period.

Persons on vessels engaged in inland navigation which came into the areas of ports and harbours under the jurisdiction of the customs officers, were treated by them in the same manner as fishing vessels. The only exception to this was in 1851, when the customs officers merely forwarded to London the vessel's name, description and port where returned, as well as the number of males and females on board.

The population of vessels on canals and inland navigable waters was treated in a rather different manner. No attempt appears to have been made to make a nominal enumeration of these vessels in 1841 and 1851. Enumerators were merely asked to calculate the numbers of males and females on such vessels and insert this figure in one of their preliminary tables. In 1841 application was also made to the canal companies to provide an estimate of the number of such people.

From 1861 onwards some attempt was made to enumerate this floating population, and a calculation of the number of such persons was no longer supplied by the enumerators. The arrangements for 1861 were extremely ad hoc. The registrar was to enumerate vessels within his sub-district 'according to the circumstances of each case'. He was advised to find where such vessels might be moored from the owners or managers of wharves, or the canal companies, and then to employ a 'trustworthy person' to visit them on census morning to obtain the necessary nominal information using the standard ship's schedule of that year. These returns can now be found at the end of the household returns for the enumeration district, or registration sub-district, in which the vessel lay on census night.

From 1871 onwards it became the responsibility of the enumerators to enumerate such vessels. They handed the person in charge of the vessel a ship's schedule, and collected them when completed. The information they contained was then entered into their enumerators' books at the end of the household entries. From 1881 this applied not only to vessels which had been given schedules prior to census day but also to barges and the like which appeared in the enumeration district on that day.

People travelling, especially those 'on the tramp', slipped through the census net because they were not resident as part of a household on census night. In the nineteenth century many people moved about the country looking for work according to the seasons or the social calendar. The censuses of this period were usually taken in March or early April, in order to avoid the movements of population associated with the agricultural harvest. In many areas, however, there may have been itinerants sleeping rough at census time.

In 1841 no special arrangements ere made to include the itinerant population in the nominal returns. This was a serious omission since the census of that year was taken in June when the movement of itinerants during the summer was already under way. The enumerators were instructed to insert in one of their summary tables the number of persons sleeping in barns, sheds, tents or in the open air, or who from any other cause, although within the District, have not been enumerated as inmates of any dwelling house.' In order to get some idea of the numbers travelling at night by railway, canal and coach, inquiries were made with the railway and canal companies, and with 'Mr Horne of the Golden Cross, Charing Cross'.

In 1851 those sleeping in barns, sheds, tents, and in the open air, were treated as in the previous census. The enumerators were instructed that persons travelling by railway or coach were to be returned at the house or hotel at which they stopped, or took up their residence, on the morning after census night. This became the standard instruction to enumerators and householders for the rest of the century.

In 1861 the number of those in barns, sheds, tents, and in the open air, was no longer explicitly given in one of the preliminary tables. On the other hand, as full particulars as possible of such people were now to be given in the main body of the returns. This information was to be given at the end of the household schedules under a heading 'List of persons not in houses'.

The census was based upon the principle that the householder should record the people who slept in his or her house on census night. In 1841 no special arrangements appear to have been made for those away from home on night shifts. From 1851 onwards, however, night workers were to be enumerated in their homes if they returned there the next day.

In the course of copying out their returns, the enumerators were given permission to use certain abbreviations for occupations. This practice was most extensive in 1841, and gradually diminished thereafter. By 1871 the only abbreviation mentioned was 'Ag. Lab.' for agricultural labourer. In 1881 a more general instruction was given - such contractions may be used as 'Ag. lab.' for agricultural labourer, but care must be taken that the contractions used are such as will be readily understood.

Scholar meaning from 1861 onwards a child was described as a scholar if he/she was over 5 and receiving daily schooling or regular tuition at home. There was no definition of the latter. In 1871 the census officials in London broke the confidentiality pledge and divulged the names of all children 3-13 and their parents (with addresses) to the London School Board to help enforce compulsory education.