The water molecule
The structure of the water molecule
Water's lone pairs
Water electronic structure
Water dimer
Water models
Water reactivity
Easier introduction to the water molecule
The molecular orbitals of water, H2O
Hydrogen bonds
Water hydrogen bonds
Hydrogen bond cooperativity
Rearranging hydrogen bonds
Bifurcated hydrogen bonds
Information transfer
Easier introduction to hydrogen bonding in water
The molecular orbitals of a water dimer, (H2O)2
The molecular orbitals of a water cyclic pentamer, (H2O)5
Density change
Triple points
Ice phases
Ice nucleation and growth
Is ice slippery?
Ice Ic Chime animation
Ice Ih/1c (Ice Isd) Chime animation
Ice II Chime animation
Ice III Chime animation
Ice IV Chime animation
Ice V Chime animation
Ice VI Chime animation
Ice VII Chime animation
Ice VIII Chime animation
Alternating
2-D Layers (Ice Ic/ Ice Ih; Ice Isd)
Ice X Chime animation
Ice XI Chime animation
Ice XII Chime animation
Ice XIII Chime animation
Ice XIV Chime animation
Amorphous ice and glassy water
Cold metastable water
Ultraviscous water and the glass transition temperature
Low-density amorphous ice (LDA)
High-density amorphous ice (HDA)
Very-high density amorphous ice (VHDA)
CS-I clathrate
CS-II clathrate
HS-III clathrate
Other structures
Molecular vibration and absorption of water
Absorption spectra of gaseous, liquid and solid water
The vibrational spectra of liquid water
The visible and UV spectra of liquid water
Water ionization, 2H2O = H3O+ + OH-
Variation in Kw with temperature and pressure
Hydrogen ions
Hydroxide ions
Grotthuss mechanism
Diffusion of hydrogen ions
Diffusion of hydroxyl ions
The molecular orbitals of the H3O+ and OH- ions
The molecular orbitals of the hydrated hydroxide ion, H3O2-
The molecular orbitals of the dihydronium ions, H5O2+
Water at interfaces
Hydrophilic confinement
Capillary rise
Interfacial water and water-gas interfaces
The surface of water
Thermodynamics of the liquid-gas surface for water
Evidence for nanobubbles
The effect of surface charge on surface tension and nanobubble stability
Sixty-seven anomalous properties of water
The range of anomalous properties of water
Water has unusually high melting point
Water has unusually high boiling point
Water has unusually high critical point
Solid water exists in a wide variety of stable structures
The thermal conductivity of ice reduces with pressure
The structure of liquid water changes at high pressure
Supercooled water has two phases
Liquid water is easily supercooled but glassified with difficulty
A liquid water phase exists at very low temperatures
Liquid water may be easily superheated
Hot water freezes faster than cold water; the Mpemba effect
Warm water vibrates longer than cold water
The density of ice increases on heating (up to 70 K)
Water shrinks on melting
Pressure reduces ice's melting point
Liquid water has a high density that increases on heating
The surface of water is more dense than the bulk
Pressure reduces the temperature of maximum density
There is a minimum in the density of supercooled water
Water has a low thermal expansivity
Water's thermal expansivity reduces at low temperatures
Water's thermal expansivity increases with increased pressure
The number of nearest neighbors increases on melting
Nearest neighbors increases with temperature
Water has unusually low compressibility
The compressibility drops as temperature increases
The compressibility-temperature maximum
The speed of sound increases with temperature up to 74°C
The speed of sound may show a minimum
'Fast sound' is found at high frequencies
NMR relaxation time is very small at low temperatures
The NMR shift increases to a maximum at low (supercool) temperatures
The refractive index of water has a maximum value
The change in volume as liquid changes to gas is very large
No aqueous solution is ideal
D2O and T2O differ significantly from H2O
Liquid H2O and D2O differ significantly in their phase behavior
The mean kinetic energy of water's hydrogen atoms increases at low temperature
Solutes have varying effects on water's properties
Non-polar gases solubility decreases with temperature
The dielectric constant of water is high
The dielectric constant shows a temperature maximum
Proton and hydroxide ion mobilities are anomalously fast
The electrical conductivity of water rises to a maximum
Acidity constants of weak acids show temperature minima
X-ray diffraction shows an unusually detailed structure
Under high pressure water molecules move apart
Thermodynamic anomalies T1-T11
The heat of fusion of water exhibits a maximum at -17°C
Water has higher specific heat capacity than ice or steam
The specific heat capacity (CP and CV) is unusually high
The specific heat capacity CP has a minimum at 36°
The specific heat capacity (CP) has a maximum
The specific heat capacity (CP) has a pressure minimum
The heat capacity (CV) has a maximum
High heat of vaporization
High heat of sublimation
High entropy of vaporization
The thermal conductivity of water is high
Water has unusually high viscosity
Large viscosity increase as the temperature is lowered
Water's viscosity decreases with pressure below 33°C
Large diffusion decrease as the temperature is lowered
The self-diffusion of water increases with the density
The thermal diffusivity rises to a maximum at about 0.8 GPa
Water has unusually high surface tension
Some salts give a surface tension minimum; the Jones-Ray effect
Some salts prevent the coalescence of small bubbles
Properties of water and heavy water (112 KB)
Short properties list for liquid H2O
Changes in some properties
with temperature (-30°C - 100°C)
Changes in some further properties
with temperature (0°C - 373°C)
Important constants and conversion factors
Unexplained properties of water
Vapor pressure-Temperature behavior
Pressure-Temperature-Density behavior
Temperature-viscosity behavior
Water model descriptions
Water model properties
Water clustering in liquid water
(H2O)8 equilibria animation Overview of the structuring in liquid water
Water clustering
Cluster and H-bond lifetimes are independent
Icosahedral water cluster
Introduction to water clustering
A brief history of water clusters
Outline of methods for investigating water structure
Why different methods give different water structures?
Dielectric spectroscopy
Diffraction methods
Modeling
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
Physical properties
Vibrational spectra
X-Ray spectroscopy
The icosahedral (H2O)280 water clusters
Tetrahedral units
Icosahedral clusters
Cluster equilibria
Cluster density
Sub-structures of the icosahedral water cluster
Connectivity map of the water icosahedron
Water cluster equilibria, puckering and temperature effects
Water icosahedral cluster architecture
Explanation of water cluster equilibria using animated gifs
Spherical coordinates of the icosahedral water clusters
Shell radii and occupancy of the icosahedral water clusters
Superstrand Chime animation
Alternative icosahedral clusters Chime animation
Alternative tetrahedral clusters Chime animation
Cavities and networks,Chime animation
Clathrate-like, Chime animation
Superstrands of water icosahedral clusters
Alternative icosahedral clustering of water
Alternative tetrahedral clustering of water
Water cluster architecture, based on gas clathrates
Paper model of an icosahedral water structure
Evidence
for icosahedral water clusters
The radial distribution function
Other support from diffraction data
Support from clathrate structures
Evidence from amorphous ice and low density water
Other evidence
The contribution of water to protein structure
Water in protein recognition and binding
Protein
folding and denaturation
Protein folding
Protein denaturation
Aqueous properties of the cyclodextrins
Polysaccharide
hydration
Hydration
Alternatives for defining bound and unbound water
Polar effects, for example, α-D-galacturonic acid
Weak hydrogen bonding, for example, α-L-arabinofuranose
Strong hydrogen bonding, for example, β-1-4-linked D-xylose
Hydrophobic effects, for example, β-1-4-linked D-xylose
Effects of other solutes: non-ionic
Effects of other solutes: ionic
Conclusions concerning polysaccharide hydration
Introduction
to polysaccharides
Chart showing the furan pseudorotational
angles
Mixtures of hydrocolloids
Effect on viscosity
Hydrocolloid action
Agar Chime animation
Alginate Chime animation
Arabinoxylan Chime animation
Carrageenan Chime animation
CMC Chime animation
Cellulose Chime animation
Curdlan Chime animation
Gelatin Chime animation
β-Glucan Chime animation Guar gum Chime animation
Locust bean gum Chime animation
Pectin Chime animation
Starch Chime animation
Xanthan gum Chime animation
Viscosity
Viscoelasticity
Structural effects
Further rheological terminology
Hydrocolloids
and health (Dietary fiber)
Dietary fiber
Colonic Fermentation
Water-holding capacity (WHC)
Viscosity and gel formation
Binding to bile acids
Ion hydration and aqueous solutions of salts
Methods for determining ion hydration
Water clustering around ions
SO42 cluster Chime animation Sulfate and other large anions
H3O+ magic number cluster Chime animation
The H3O+ magic number cluster ions
Water clustering around the SO42- cluster
Water clustering around the CO2 cluster
Definitions of kosmotropes
and chaotropes
Ionic kosmotropes and chaotropes
Non-ionic kosmotropes and chaotropes
α,α-Trehalose
The hydrophobic effect
Extensive hydrophobic interfaces
Solubility effects
Salting-out and salting-in
Alcoholic solutions
Carboxylate link Chime animation Intracellular solutions contain more K+ ions
Membranes help create a tendency towards low density water in cells
The effect of intracellular protein on water structuring
The importance of protein carboxylate groups
The importance of protein mobility
Cooperative conversion of the water structuring
Actin, tubulins and the intermediate filaments
Water and life
Can
life exist without water?
Consequences of changes in water’s hydrogen bond strength
Estimating the effect of changes in water hydrogen bond strength
Effect of water hydrogen bond strength on melting and boiling point
Effect of hydrogen bond strength on the temperature of maximum density
Effect of water hydrogen bond strength on kosmotropes and chaotropes
Effect of water hydrogen bond strength on its ionization
Effect of water hydrogen bond strength on biomolecule hydration
Effect of water hydrogen bond strength on its other physical properties
Conclusions concerning water and life
Water content
Water balance
Water requirements
Water roles
Hydration
Water for drinking
Magnetic
and electric effects on water
Electric effects on water
Magnetic effects on water
Electromagnetic effects on water
Other related effects
Dielectric loss
Effect of salt
Electromagnetic penetration
Dielectric constant and polarization
Background information and definitions
Polarization and polarizability
Refractive index
The complex dielectric
permittivity behavior of water
The complex dielectric permittivity
Polarization
Colligative properties of water
Overview of colligative properties
Vapor pressure lowering : CaCl2
Freezing point depression : examples : Glucose : Urea : Ethanol : NaCl : CaCl2
Boiling point elevation : Glucose
Osmotic pressure
Self-generation of osmotic pressure at interfaces
Polyoxomolybdate systems
{Mo132} nanodrop Chime animation
nanodrop + fullerene, Chime animation
{Mo154} nanowheel Chime animation
{Mo132} nanocapsule and aqueous nanodrop
Molybdenum blue {Mo154} nanowheel
How does the {Mo154} nanowheel hydrate?
How do the nanowheels form large spherical clusters?
Aqueous
solutions of fuillerenes, C60 and C70
Frequently
asked questions concerning liquid water
How
can hot water freeze quicker than cold water?
Can
increasing pressure prevent water from freezing?
Why does salt lower the freezing point of water?
Does
magnetic descaling of water work?
How
can a liquid have a structure?
Does
the radial distribution peak at about 3.7 Å exist?
Is
there fine structure in the radial distribution function?
Do
interstitial water molecules exist?
Icosahedral clustering and the two-state
mixture model?
Water-related
material
Published evidence for and against homeopathy
Homeopathic solutions
Does homeopathy work?
Is water special?
Does the glassware matter?
Is gas important?
Does dilution happen as predicted?
Solutions are more complex than expected
Possible scenarios for the memory effect in homeopathic solutions
'Polywater', declustered
water and other waters
Polywater
IE
HHO
Neowater
Clustered and 'declustered' water
Peroxide and radical production in water
Contributed
papers
J.
G. Watterson, Enzyme function: random events or coherent
Book reviews
Aqueous systems at elevated temperatures and pressures
Handbook of refractive index and dispersion of water for scientists and engineers
Visitor's
Book, recent postings
Visitor's
Book archive, 2000-2003
Visitor's
Book archive, 2004-2006
Water
related links
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This page was last updated by Martin Chaplin on 1 February, 2012
