Authentic Counselling Training
Notes to Help in the Preparation of Essays
[Under
construction:
This
document in all parts is copyright © Peter Hughes from the date of construction
given above. Please feel free to make use of it for solely personal purposes.
However, should you wish to use it for teaching, training, commercial or other
purposes, you are required to ask me first.
1. Introduction
Assignments are a key learning tool of counselling training courses. Each assignment requires the writing of some form of report/essay. Whilst some course participants starting the course will already be familiar with general essay writing requirements, most course participants may, to some degree or other, feel rather daunted by the prospect, and feel uncertain about what is required. This short document is intended to offer guidance that may serve to reassure. Having read the document in its entirety, you may care to revisit those sections you understood less well. You are welcome to offer feedback on any aspect of this document, including about those aspect that remain obscure to you. That said, this document cannot hope to replace the journal articles, chapters and books written about essay writing. You are encouraged to read a study guide, such as The Good Study Guide, published by the Open University (1990).
1.1
A note on terminology
The term essay is used by some people of an unbroken non-fiction text. Those same people would term the type of document required for the written component of the assignments a report rather than an essay. However, for the purposes of these counselling training courses, the terms essay and report tend to be used interchangeably.
1.2
Three components of text
When thinking about a piece of text, such as The New English Bible (1971), several features about the document are immediately obvious. First, the document is carefully structured: into Old and New Testaments, and the Testaments into separate ‘books’. The text of each book has been divided into chapters and verses. The ordering of this structure tends towards a chronology: Genesis precedes Exodus, and the four gospels (telling the story of Jesus) precede The Acts of the Apostles (telling the story of what happened after Jesus’ death). The structuring shows evidence of considerable care having been taken to present the document in as accessible a manner as possible. Without this structuring the document would be much harder to read and make sense of.
Second, the Bible contains a lot of information: historical, genealogical, philosophical, spiritual. This information may be termed ‘content’. Understanding is also part of the content. In many documents the purpose of the information is to support or challenge the understanding. For example, the purpose of the some of the historical information in the Bible is to explain why the Hebrew God has acted, and continues to act, in particular ways; the purpose of the genealogical information is to make the case for considering a people and a person to be special.
Third, the ‘content’ is expressed in some way, for instance much of the genealogical content is presented in the style of a list. Had the purpose been different, the same genealogical information could have been presented as a family tree, or as a social history. Some of the spiritual content is in the style of an interesting story (e.g a parable) or as a song (e.g. Song of Songs). Some of the philosophical content is in verse form, which allows the point to be made more persuasively than were it presented simply as prose:
“For
everything its season, and for every activity under heaven its time:
a time to be born and a time to die;
a time to plant and a time to uproot;
a time to kill and a time to heal;
a time to pull down and a time to build up;
a time to weep and a time to laugh;
a time for mourning and a time for dancing;” (Ecclesiastes 3, i-iv).
When writing an assignment essay, it is important to keep in mind these three features: structure, content, style.
2. Structure
A significant purpose of writing assignment essays for counselling training courses is to demonstrate to the reader an understanding of a counselling-related issue. An essay that puts into practice a well-thought out structure has the best opportunity to demonstrate understanding of the issue. In contrast, an essay without an apparent structure is usually hard for someone else to read and to make sense of. A loosely structured essay is often the result of what may be politely termed ‘stream of consciousness’, fine examples of which can be found in Ulysees (1960) by James Joyce. Literary connections aside, an essay without an apparent structure mostly shows a deficit of thought and a likely deficit of understanding.
The structure of an essay can be made more obvious by subdividing the essay into sections, each with its own heading. The use of subheadings helps both with clarity of thought and subsequent ease of reading. This document demonstrates the use of numbered subheadings. There is no requirement in essays written for counselling assignments that the subheadings are numbered, although numbering subheadings sometimes reduces ambiguity.
The most obvious structure of an essay can usually be extracted from the ‘essay question’, that is, the assignment instructions: some essay questions list sequentially precisely what is expected. Other essay questions invite structuring around a particular counselling concept, such as ‘Rogers’ three core conditions’ (Rogers, 1980, pp.115-117), ‘Rogers’ seven stages of psychological development’ (Rogers, 1967, pp.132-155), or ‘Rogers’ nineteen propositions’ (Rogers, 1951, pp.483-524). However, with a few assignment essays, it may not be immediately obvious what the structure of the essay should be. In these instances, the broad structure of beginning (introduction), middle (development) and end (summary/conclusions) is a good place to start. As the writing of the essay progresses, by keeping thoughts in mind about the essay structure, finer details of appropriate structuring may emerge. For example, the assignment regarding critiques of counselling requires several different sources to be consulted. Necessarily notes drawn from each of these sources will be written separately. On rereading these notes, some themes from across several sources are likely to emerge. Following themes tends to demonstrate understanding, and therefore is a good choice for structuring an essay.
2.1
Introduction
Just as this document begins with an introduction that explains something of its purpose, it is valuable to start an essay with material that introduces the reader to the rest of the text. Sometimes, such as writing about a ‘core condition’, this introductory material may be an outline of the essay; other times, such as writing a case study about counselling relationship, the introduction may be a paragraph describing the circumstances of the counselling placement. Typically, there are three types of mistakes regarding introductions:
a. no introduction,
b. far too long an introduction (all essays have word limits),
c. an introduction that merely paraphrases the essay question.
2.2
Development
Development of the ideas comes in the middle section of the essay. This development section is usually by far and away the longest section because it contains most of the information and a good deal of the understanding. If it is not the longest section then the essay is likely to feel under-resourced and unbalanced.
2.3
Summary/conclusions
An essay usually ends with a summary and/or the conclusions. A summary is a concise recapitulation of the key points addressed in the ‘development’, and demonstrates that what has been written about has been understood. Conclusions involves processing what has been written to achieve a deeper understanding, where possible making it clear how these conclusions have been generated. Recognising the uniqueness of essays written for counselling training courses, the conclusions typically includes three components: “As a result of carrying out this assignment and writing this essay, what have I learned about
a. this issue?
b. counselling in general?
c. myself?”
Whilst the summary/conclusions end the essay, one or more sections follow: a list of references, and any appendices.
2.4
List of references
The list of references (also inaccurately termed a bibliography) lists sources that have been consulted in order to write the essay. Unlike a bibliography, the list of references lists only those sources that have been referenced in the body of the essay. Even though twenty sources may have been consulted in preparing the essay, if only two sources have been referenced in the body of the essay, then only two sources can be listed in the list of references. The list of references lists, without omission, in alphabetical order of the author’s surname, giving full bibliographical details, each book, journal article, magazine article, newspaper article, and website that has been referenced in the essay. (See the sample text given towards the end of this document.)
2.5
Appendices
In essays written for counselling training assignments, appendices are used to present unpublished source material referenced in the body of the text. Each in a separate appendix, examples typically include:
a. a transcript of observed counselling practice,
b. notes written by observers regarding observed counselling practice,
c. a copy of a written counselling contract between counsellor and client,
d. a section from a personal journal.
3. Content
Counselling training course essays are unique in that they require engagement both with counselling theory and with personal experience. Two types of content are required:
a. theoretical material that covers (fully) the ground of the essay title, drawn from books and journals;
b. specific examples (preferably) drawn from personal experience in life or from the counselling room (either as trainee counsellor or as client).
In an essay written for a counselling training assignment, the purpose of using material drawn from theoretical sources is to demonstrate depth and breadth of understanding regarding a counselling-related issue. The purpose of using specific examples drawn from personal experience in life or from the counselling room is to demonstrate an ability to recognise the implications of applying theory to practice, and the impact of practice on theory.
It is important to achieve a balance between personal experience and material drawn from the theoretical literature. There is no correct balance, only that balance which is right for the essay. Some essays require greater emphasis on counselling theory, whereas others (such as case studies and commentaries on observed counselling practice) focus more on the practice of counselling.
3.1
Content-related mistakes
Content-related mistakes typically include:
a. drawing only from the theoretical literature (maybe because this is typically what is required in other disciplines);
b. drawing insufficiently from the theoretical literature, leaving the text relatively unsupported;
c. drawing on too narrow a focus of the theoretical literature, for example from only one or two books;
d. drawing predominantly from obscure or populist literature, rather than from the mainstream of theoretical writing about the subject;
e. mistaking personal views, opinions and attitudes for personal experience. This is not to suggest that personal views, opinions and attitudes are unimportant, but in an essay written for a counselling training assignment, they should be shown to result from, or at least relate to, some aspect of practice.
3.2
Using theoretical material
The inclusion, in an essay written for a counselling training assignment, of theoretical material in the body of the text can take one of three forms:
a. Quotations should be placed inside quotation marks. They should be short and to the point. Avoid long quotations: the essay reader is likely to be familiar not only with the source material, but probably also the quotation.
b.
Paraphrasing is a useful way of including the ideas of
a counselling writer without being tied to their
grammatical structure. However, it is a poor use of time to paraphrase much.
c. The inclusion of relevant key concepts demonstrates understanding. The exclusion of a relevant key concept suggests a lack of understanding. (For examples of points raised in this section, see Sample Text below.)
Assertions about counselling theory are always best supported with reference to the theoretical literature. The referencing to theoretical sources of concepts and ideas presented in the text is very important, not least because to do so avoids any charge to plagiarism. (Plagiarism is when the ideas or writing of someone else is presented in such a way as to allow the reader to believe that the idea was first thought of, or originally written about, by the essay writer.) It is important to reference all directly quoted material, paraphrased material, and the first instance of any key concept.
3.3
Referencing
Referencing has two components: an indication in the body of
the text of the source from which the material being considered has been drawn; a full bibliographical description of that
source in the list of references at the end of the essay. Whilst there are many
styles of referencing, the counselling world increasingly uses one particular
style. In the text, place the reference in brackets, thus:
(Feltham & Horton, 2000, pp.152-170). Where your
sentence structure demands your use of the name of the writer, include only the
date of publication and the relevant page numbers inside the brackets: "
4. Style
It is best to write simply. Use short sentences, and avoid
convoluted grammar. Try to write reasonably formally (like
the style used in most counselling books), but not so formally that, when read
aloud, what you have written sounds affected or pompous. Avoid slang and
colloquialisms except in reported speech. (Notice the effect of the
juxtaposition of the terms ‘critique’ (formal) and ‘slag off’ (informal) in a
paragraph below.) Try to use formal counselling terminology, not least because
this tends to demonstrate evidence of having read some counselling books. When
using for the first time a counselling term with which you are unfamiliar,
explain briefly what you understand the term to mean.
Write in the first person (e.g. “I said to her…”) when
referring to something you did, but not when considering counselling concepts
(e.g. avoid: “I think that
In many documents, the writer presents information in order to inform a reader. The choice of information presented is usually based on what the writer considers will best inform a reader. In contrast, the purpose of an essay written for a counselling training assignment is to demonstrate to an already-well-informed reader the depth and breadth of understanding of the essay writer. The choice of information to be presented should be based on what will best demonstrate depth and breadth of understanding. For example, regarding depth of understanding an essay writer at an early stage of counselling training might write about the core conditions in solely verbal and non-verbal terms, whereas an essay writer at a more advanced stage of counselling training might write about the effect of the core conditions on the personality structure of the client. Regarding breadth of understanding, an essay writer at an early stage of counselling training might write about the use and impact of an intervention that showed their congruence, whereas an essay writer at a more advanced stage of counselling training might write about the ways in which their use of congruence within a specific counselling relationship has impacted on the balance between support and challenge in the relationship, the extent to which the relationship has been developed by the presence of congruence, the extent to which the client/speaker has experienced themselves differently, what needs to happen next, and where the learning edge for the essay writer now lies.
The purpose of an essay written for a counselling training assignment is to demonstrate to an already-well-informed reader the depth and breadth of understanding of the writer. This purpose requires the expression of a personal evaluation of the theoretical material only once all sides have been presented. The expression of personal opinion is, therefore, best reserved for response to material, for choices between two or more positions, and for writing in a personal journal.
(The following four paragraphs are at an early stage, and will be developed further.)
Understanding of an issue is valuably communicated through analysis of theoretical material and of personal experience. Without analysis, quotations from the theoretical literature may be nothing more than empty phrases. As far as possible analysis should be supported with material drawn from the theoretical literature and/or personal experience. Understanding may lead to insight.
It is good to consider alternative and contradictory views, for this shows balance, and identifies strengths and weaknesses in a given point of view. The presentation of alternative ideas may also help to establish some boundaries of applicability around a given issue.
It is good to critique both theory and practice, but not simply to slag them off! Critique can be drawn from theoretical literature (Rogers, 1951, pp.197-231) and/or derive from personal experience. It is good to critique your personal experience in the light of one or more theoretical positions. For instance, you might have experienced a course participant as being patronising, but in the light of psychodynamic theory recognise that their response was, say, counter-transferential.
Try to show evidence of learning as a result of the course sessions, as well as evidence of wider reading (this document contains references both to the Bible and to James Joyce’s Ulysees). Avoid grinding old axes, beating old drums, or traipsing over old ground. There is, however, merit in re-visiting in order to re-evaluate what was familiar to you before the course. Whilst assignment essays are an opportunity to show off understanding, try to conform to the word limit.
5. Presentation
A document that is neatly and smartly
presented permits a less obstructed view of its contents. A document
that contains few, if any, spelling and/or grammatical errors demonstrates that it has been checked carefully. All word
processors have spelling checkers, and many also have
grammar checkers. Blank spaces awaiting the insertion of
material (such as a date of publication), accidentally repeated sections of
text, and mis-spelt names (e.g. Rodgers instead of
6. Sample Text
Carl Rogers identified “three conditions that must be
present” in a relationship for the relationship “to be growth-promoting”
(Rogers, 1980, p.115). Now known as the ‘core conditions’,
The presence in a relationship of the core conditions does
not require their mathematically equal presence in that relationship at every
moment. In my experience of counselling, I sometimes fear overwhelming a client
if I am too congruent until I have established some rapport. On the other hand,
I find it easy to empathise with a client, and from this develop and nurture my
positive regard for them. Writers subsequent to
List of References
Merry, T. (1986) Developing Person Centred Counselling, PCCS Books, Hay-on-Wye.
Prouty, G. (1976) ‘Pre-therapy’, British
Journal of Guidance and Counselling, December,
Rogers, C. (1951) Client Centered Therapy, Constable,
Rogers, C. (1967) On Becoming a Person, Constable,
Rogers, C.
7. Conclusions
It is only too evident from this document that the process of essay writing requires thought, care and attention to several component elements: structure, content and style. There is not only a requirement to make sense of and understand the issue under consideration, but also to present that understanding as fully as feasible within the limits of the essay. Further, whilst many people are familiar with communicating ideas in writing, the disciplines associated with referencing material to the theoretical literature may initially feel somewhat daunting. The physical production of an essay inevitably demands thoughtful preparation, selective reading, note-taking, recording bibliographical details and page numbers, more thought, writing, rewriting, redrafting and proofreading. It may initially require a certain suspension of disbelief to imagine that the process of essay writing is worthwhile.
8. List of References
Delegates of the
Feltham, C. and Horton,
Joyce, J (1960) Ulysees, Penguin, Harmondsworth.
Merry, T. (1986) Developing Person Centred Counselling, PCCS Books, Hay-on-Wye.
Northledge, A.
(1990), The Good Study Guide, Open University,
Prouty, G. (1976) ‘Pre-therapy’, British
Journal of Guidance and Counselling, December,
Rogers, C. (1951) Client Centered Therapy, Constable,
Rogers, C. (1967) On Becoming a Person, Constable,
Rogers, C.
Assignments for Certificate in Counselling: Essay preparation, Introduction, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
This
document in all parts is copyright © Peter Hughes from the date of construction
given above. Please feel free to make use of it for solely personal purposes.
However, should you wish to use it for teaching, training, commercial or other
purposes, you are required to ask me first.