The British Navy Past and Present
Published by The Navy League
Chapter IV CRUISERS AND TORPEDO CRAFT. Though the warlike strength of a nation at sea must be ultimately gauged by the force it can put in line of battle, the efficient employment of such can only be ensured by the possession also of numerous well-equipped lighter vessels which, under the modern term Cruisers, will in future do the work formerly imposed on frigates and sloops. They were the eyes of the feet, and when attached to the squadrons were entrusted with the duty of getting and keeping in touch with the enemy until the main body came on the scene, while eluding capture themselves. Such a result could only be secured by frigates being swifter under canvas than the heavier vessels. It was superior speed only which made cruisers of old useful adjuncts to fleets; nothing else can be given the first place in what similar vessels to-day should excel. Curiously enough, in the transition stage between sails and steam, when we tried to adopt one with out giving up the other, the above great principle was obscured, and we allowed cruisers to be constructed of actually inferior speed under steam to battleships. An extensive naval war at such a period would have given rise to the strange anomaly of many cruisers remaining in port for fear of capture, or, if met at sea by a battleship, being unable to escape. For years we were content with a speed of thirteen knots for our cruisers, while at the same time we were launching battleships two knots faster. It would take too long to trace the progress of these substitutes for the old sailing frigates, and they are only now chiefly used for train-ing purposes. Fortunately, when we seriously began to resuscitate our fleet sixteen years ago, the right principle had been re-established, and cruisers once again began to be worthy of the name. It is more than twenty years since the Iris, a steel cruiser of nearly 4,000 tons, was completed, having a speed of eighteen knots; but for some time she and her sister, the Mercury, were the sole representatives of this advance in speed. It was not till 1889 that in the con-struction of our cruisers we fully recognised this essential quality, and laid down over thirty of this class with an extreme speed of twenty knots. Dependent upon steam power alone, this meant the provision of a large quantity of coal, with the result that the dimensions of cruisers have been growing equally with those of battleships. The steam and sailing frigates, Inconstant, Raleigh, Boadicea and Euryalus, ranging from 4,500 to 5,500 tons, have been replaced by the Crescent class of 7,500 tons and the Blake and Blenheim of 9,000 tons, coal supply being raised from 700 to 1,400 tons. The defence of these two latter vessels against gun fire is limited to a protective deck, although previously a cruiser of such dimensions had usually been given a belt of Armour to at any rate keep the water line intact. A heavy gun of twenty-two tons forms the bow and stern Blake and Blenheim. Ten 6-in. guns form the broadside armament. With slight modifications, this is the type of several of our first-class protected cruisers, and they have proved well suited for distant stations. They are, however surpassed by the Powerful and Terrible - in which the size has risen to 14,200 tons, in order principally that they may carry 2,600 tons of coal and have a speed of twenty-two knots, for their armament was not at first much in excess of that given to Blake and Blenheim; They have recently, however, been given four additional 6-in. guns.
Notwithstanding some adverse Criticism, the Powerful and Terrible, have answered expectations. A modified type - the Diadem class of 11,000 tons -has also proved successful in steaming capacity, though the armament is considered defective by many because it comprises no gun heavier than the 6-in. There are eight of these vessels. Like the Powerful and Terrible, the protection to vital parts from shot and shell is limited to armour within the hull in the form of a protective deck.This system is based on the consideration that given a limited amount of armour for protection it is best disposed in this manner; for if distributed on the outside of the ship the thickness must be so reduced as to afford little resistance against the attack of moderate sized projectiles. The protective deck when solely employed allows such missiles free entry, and then acts in guarding the propelling and directive power from their effects as well as preventing water that may have entered by penetration near the water-line from passing below thus endangering the buoyancy of the vessel.
The principle is no doubt sound where size of ship prevents any extensive use of armour, but with large vessels - except for purely scouting and despatch duties - general opinion is in favour of keeping out as many projectiles as possible by placing the protection on, as well as within, the hull.
We carried out this idea twenty years ago by the construction of two armoured cruisers, as this type is called, the Imperieuse and Warspite of 8,400 tons, which have a portion of the hull at the water-line protected by ten inches of compound armour. The armament comprised four 9.2-in. and ten 6-in. guns. The success of this pair led us to follow them up with seven belted cruisers : Orlando, Aurora, Narcissus, Australia, Galatea, Immortalite and undaunted, of smaller dimensions and two 9.2-in. guns, one at each end, instead of four. All these ships have done excellent service.Then the protective deck held the field for a period, as; mentioned, until the increase of quick-fire guns, especially the small calibre, which might riddle the water-line, again brought the armoured cruiser into favour. The Cressy class, six ships of 12,000 tons, mark a great advance in this branch of construction for the speed is increased from the seventeen knots given to Narcissus type to twenty-one knots, and the ten 6-in. guns to twelve; while in addition the Cressys carry fourteen 12-pounders. The protection is also more extensive, the belt of 6-in. Krupp steel is carried forward to the stem, and aft to within a short distance of the stern.
These vessels are capable of overhauling and bringing to action nearly all foreign cruisers, but as a few are being constructed abroad of greater speed and power we have responded by the construction of the Good Hope class of 14,100 tons and twenty-three knots speed, while the arma-ment is similar to that of the Cressy With two additional 6-in. guns.
A variation on the Good Hope type is next seen in the Duke of Edinburgh and Black Prince, mainly as regards armament, for with practically the same displacement the two 9.2-in. guns are increased to six, and the 6-in. guns reduced again to ten. The four additional heavy guns are mounted singly, two on each side, so that an extremely heavy fire, for a cruiser, can be directed on any bearing. Four more of this type, only slightly inferior to the Good Hope in speed, are under construction, and thus constitute a group capable of detached service, or as useful adjuncts to a battleship squadron.
Cruisers embodying such characteristics as the Good Hope and Duke of Edinburgh are as costly as any battleship except the largest and latest; but we want many more of them. No estimates within our means would suffice for all cruisers to be Good Hopes, so we are building sixteen others of somewhat smaller dimensions, six being of 10,850 tons and ten of 9,800 tons The latter, known as the "County" class, being named after counties of the united Kingdom, have no gun larger than the 6-in., with the peculiarity that a pair of these pieces is mounted at each end as we dispose the heaviest guns of a battleship. The advantages of such a system with this calibre of ordnance is more apparent than real while the desire to have bow and stern chasers of greater power than the broadside guns has existed for centuries. Hence in the six succeeding vessels known as the Devonshire type we have installed at each end a new calibre gun, viz., of 7.5-in., which throws a projectile of more than double the weight of that discharged by the 6-in., and having therefore much greater shell effect. In the "County'' class a speed of twenty-three knots is aimed at, while the Devonshires have one knot less. From this brief review it will be seen that we are pushing on with the construction of first-class cruisers.Though we have forty built and building, such a number would not suffice for the adequate protection of our commerce as well as for scouting duties with the heavy squad-rons. Hence we supplement it with a smaller type called second-class cruisers, varying in size from 3,500 to 5,800 tons, mainly armed with 6-in. guns or a combination of 6-in. and 4.7-in. These have a protective deck instead of external armour, and a speed varying from eighteen to twenty knots.
A smaller type, designated third-class cruisers, should perhaps more correctly be described as despatch vessels, for their dimensions, involving a comparatively small supply of coal, do not enable them to keep the sea for any lengthened period, and their armament is light. Their speed also being less than the large cruisers they are not efficient for scouting in conjunction with them, nor independently. We are there-fore providing a special class of small scouts with very high speed. The Sentinel, Forward, Adventure, Pathfinder and others arc from 2,500 to 3,000 tons, with a speed of twenty--five knots. To produce this, machinery of 16,000 horse-power Is required, and to maintain it for even a short period involves a large consumption of coal. Thus only the lightest armament can be given, consisting of ten 12-pounder guns. Acting as vedettes to gain and convey information they should ordinarily avoid a combat, but are not left defence-less and a prey to the smallest craft, should their motive power fail them. This completes our review of the cruiser fleet, omitting reference to certain less modern ships which yet remain on the effective list.If we may consider the period from 1840 to 1860 as specially marked by the application of steam to the wooden line-of-battleship, and the next twenty years by the creation of ironclads and the improvement of ordnance, the final twenty years of the last century will, perhaps, in future be distinguished by the birth and development of the torpedo as a weapon of naval warfare. Whether the expectations formed of its efficiency will be realised is at present an open question, but the fact remains that all nations are now devoting considerable atten-tion to this form of attack, with the no less important question of how fleets can be protected against this new form of naval warfare.
The weakness of ships under water had long been recognised, but the clumsy methods in use for attacking this part before the introduction of the Whitehead torpedo prevented much importance being attached to the matter. It was then seen, however, that the new weapon had great capabilities, and the immense advantage of its application from the smallest craft afloat became fully recognised. A swift boat so armed would be a serious menace to the largest ironclad, finding in rapidity of movement and invisibility defence against the counter attack by guns brought against it. Such considerations brought about that marvellous growth of the torpedo boat which figures so largely in all navies. In England it was not received with so much favour as being chiefly useful to a State more likely to be acting on the defensive than we could admit to be our probable policy in war. We, nevertheless, have from time to time added batches of those boats to our fleet, and placed a few at all our outlying stations. At the same time it was felt some special means must be devised to meet the torpedo boat, which in the improved form became capable of acting on the offensive, within moderate distance of its base. Such a feeling took practical shape in the "Destroyer," which, in its most recent form, is an enlarged and swifter boat armed with light quick-firing guns, so that it may overtake and destroy the smaller craft before it can execute its mission. This class is represented by the Havock, Hornet, Daring, and many others. Experience has shown they are well suited for narrow waters and they may be found equally so for such a locality as the Mediterranean, but for ocean work a larger type is desirable. This we have in the torpedo gunboats varying from 550 to 1,000 tons in size. They fell into some disrepute owing to a lack of speed, but this is being remedied by improved boilers. As ocean torpedo-boat destroyers the type deserves further attention.The latest development of the destroyer is in the increase of speed to 35 knots by the ingenious application of the steam turbine to these craft by Mr. Parsons. This method allows the steam to act direct on the propeller shaft without intermediate cranks, and so permits a considerable increase in the revolution speed of the propeller.
Invisibility being an essential attribute of the torpedo boat for its successful employment it is not surprising that the ancient idea of navigating under water should be revived and receive: encouragement to-day. The value of the sub-marine boat should be estimated by the increased chance it affords of bringing the 1ocomotnotve torped0 within striking distance unobserved. The torpedo carrier must come within 1,500 yards of its object before becoming deadly, and previous to this the surface boat, being visible, at once comes in for a heavy fire. The submarine on the other hand need only be on the surface intermittent1y for correction of its course; and just before discharging its missile. Hence, if other conditions are not averse, the power of disappearing from view undoubtedly aids attaining the desired position. For reconnoitring an enemy's Coast or harbours, also, the submarine craft has advantages in its approach being undetected. Many have been the expedients proposed and tried for obtaining a satisfactory submarine vessel. My own experience of them dates back to 1886, when I saw Mr. Nordenfelt's first boat in Greek waters, it having been acquired by that State in anticipation of a war with Turkey. It was propelled by steam, and had in addition to the boiler two reservoirs or tanks of heated water. When required to proceed below the surface the fires were shut off and steam taken from the boiler and tanks. Horizontal propellers forced the boat down to the required depth, overcoming the buoyancy. Thus an unusual peculiarity in these craft was observed of it being more difficult to go down than to come up; for on stopping these propellers the boat at once came to the surface. I should imagine, however, that the heat below would be trying except, perhaps, to Lascars.Another boat of which I was asked to witness an exhibition some years ago depended, as regards sinking, upon drawing within the hull projecting hollow cylinders. To rise, these cylinders were pushed out, thus imparting buoyancy by increasing the displacement. The trial of this craft took place in Tilbury Dock, and when some of the party had got inside through the manhole this was closed, the cylinders drawn in, and the submarine disappeared from our gaze. What happened is then thus narrated. After a short time below, the craft being stationary and resting on the bottom of the dock, the word went forth to out cylinders and ascend. The projection was effected by winches. To the horror of the crew it was then found that these could not be moved. What had been up to then a light-hearted task now assumed a serious aspect the air was becoming exhausted. It was a case of off coats and heave round for life. What had happened? Simply they had not reckoned upon two or three feet of soft mud at the bottom of the dock on which the submarine had made a comfortable bed, the soft material resting against the outer faces of the cylinders and resisting projection. Fortunately, after some moments of anxiety the force put forth displaced the mud, and the vessel rose to the surface. Not until the inmates were released did we above know of the mauvais quart d'heure they had passed. Whether this incident affected the future of the invention I know not, but it does riot appear to have made material progress since.
In America and France, after much experimenting practical submarine vessels were produced. As in the case of the torpedo boats we were slow in following suit but the desire to know the actual value and the best way of counter-acting them led us to obtain some submarine boats. The earliest patterns are of 120 tons displacement, later construc-tions are of 2OO tons. They are capable of travelling on the surface by means of an engine operated by gasoline; when under water propulsion is effected by electricity supplied from accumulators.The original submarines had usually only one system of propulsion suitable for then when hermetically sealed and travelling under water, or just awash. But whether the power was compressed air or electricity the storage of either was so limited as to circumscribe greatly the boat's range of operation. Hence the surface propulsion in addition, and with it the craft is termed submersible. The time within which it can pass from one condition to the other is a measure of its efficiency, so as to be under observation or fire the shortest possible period. The chief defect of a submer-sible craft is the limited range of observation from it when on the surface -owing to absence of elevation of the observer- and entire invisibility, when submerged, of objects distant more than a few feet, owing to the darkness which prevails under water. To give some knowledge, when in this condition, of objects in the vicinity above, an instrument called a periscope has been devised, which is a tube going from the boat to the surface, through which objects are reflected below on to a table. Such a device, with the limiting conditions of application at sea, can be, however, but an imperfect medium for conveying the information desired, and upon which so much depends.
The torpedo boat being primarily for the defence of harbours the submarine vessel adds to the risk of closely blockading a port. It does not necessarily entail this operation being abandoned; but may cause the heavy ships to keep further out, leaving the close guard, as before, to be maintained by a light flotilla. So far there seems no reason to believe the submarine will displace the ironclad in naval warfare.Finally, it may be asked, Has the under water attack a future, or will it eventually disappear, like the fireship? To give a direct answer is difficult, but an opinion may be formed from the following. The torpedo is directed against the most vulnerable part of a ship, and one successful hit in any part most probably would, if it did not sink, so disable her as to put any offensive action out of the question. We cannot defend the hull under water with armour, as we do above, against shot and shell, as great buoyancy is required to carry the heavy weights a fighting ship requires. Sub-division into watertight compartments can only be carried out to a certain extent, and there must remain large spaces which cannot under existing conditions be subdivided. When all is done in this direction an Increase in the charge of the torpedo, an easy matter, gives it again the mastery.
A few years ago the low speed and inaccuracy of this weapon seriously impaired its efficiency. Today, owing to mere increased velocity, and above all from the greater accuracy secured by applying the gyroscope to its movement, efficiency has been increased one hundred-fold. There remains only now to add further to speed and reduce the time of reaching an object for if the torpedo takes nearly a minute to traverse 1,000 yards several conditions have time to come into play to produce a miss. Nevertheless I believe that in the next naval war between two first class maritime Powers the locomotive torpedo is destined to produce some such revolution in construction as the introduction of shell fire effected over forty years ago.
Such have been the changes in warships since the old wars, and the most striking have occurred during Her late Majesty's eventful reign. They are associated with the names of many distinguished men as the product of nautical experience and able design. If at one time behind other nations in naval architecture, we have held the lead since iron and steam became the principal factors in construction and propulsion. Isaac Watts, the designer of the Warrior, deserves to be remembered with Brunel, who evolved the Great Eastern from his prolific brain. Sir E. J. Reed, Sir Nathaniel Barnaby, Sir William White, and Mr. Philip Watts have each helped to create the fleet which has maintained our supremacy at sea for the last forty years. Nor should it be forgotten how much has been done outside the Navy to for-ward its efficiency, and how greatly our position as a maritime Power is enhanced by those splendid private shipbuilding establishments, the envy of other States. The names of Armstrong and Noble must always be connected with the progress of ordnance, those of Maudslay and Humphreys with those beautiful marine engines which other fleets besides our own are glad to secure. Thornycroft, Yarrow, and Parsons are now household words in connection with those wonderful constructions which flash past at the speed of an express train. Messrs. Whitehead and Brotherhood have given us a wonderful under-water missile. The country owes much to all these men.
[Index] [Chapter V]
