NAVIES IN TRANSITION

The perfecting of the wooden man-of-war in the context of early 19th century international politics

A small guide to surviving and reconstructed 19th century warships from the pre-ironclad era in naval architecture

By Dirk J. Vries

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Introduction

Scattered around the world, some thirty 19th century naval ships have survived in our days, although it must be stated that some reconstructions and replicas are counted amoung them. An important observation at the turn of the 20th to the 21th century is,
- with the exception of a few still threatened examples - that their number now seems to have stabilized, owing to the increasing attention for their preservation during the past decades.

Intriguing is the fact, that the ships are products of a period, during which a maritime revolution took place. The maritime nations entered the 19th century with the apparantly unchallenged reliance on wooden sailing men-of-war that essentially didn't differ from their 17th and 18th centuries predecessors. The 'art' of naval warfare - broadside solid shot firing from smooth-bore guns at close range, crippling but rarely sinking adversaries - likewise had hardly changed in centuries. The 19th century however ended in showing the major sea-going powers building and maintaining large fleets of steam driven and steel hulled warships, capable of firing armourpiercing granates from rifled guns with great accuracy over long distances.
The underlying impressive technical revolution can be discerned in the period 1800-1860, related to the perfecting of the traditional wooden man-of-war and in the period afterwards, introducing new weaponry like the torpedo and even the submarine but mainly known for the contest between armour and guns in fighting ships

The attention in this article focusses to the period 1800-1860 but not just to the technical aspects of warships. To comprehend the impact of technically evolving naval power, one also has to be somewhat familiar with the main course of international politics. For this reason this article continues with summaries on contemporary international politics and with reviews on maritime events. In conjunction these summaries and reviews seek to reveal the cohesion in international politics and sea power, a field of historic interest developed around 1890 by the influential American naval historian Alfred T. Mahan. The first sixty years of the 19th century show the dominance in world affairs of the European nations, notably France and Great Britain. Naval display, with some notable roles for still existing ships, proved to be a major instrument of international politics.

The brief survey of the period is concluded with the service- and preservation records of the nine contemporary surviving or reconstructed naval ships.These records recall the more or less significant historic roles and specific features of the ship concerned. Some opinions on preservation and display finish the article.

Sail and steam

Retention and progression

Although growing in size and equipped in the late 1840's with screw driven steam propulsion, the wooden sailing man-of-war kept its leading role in the navies until about 1860. (Steam assist, that is steam plant assistance to sail power gave way to wind assist, where sails augmented the primary steam propulsion) During this period the ship of the line, liner or 'wooden wall', known in several rates, officially remained the major type of warship although the role of the frigate rapidly grew in importance. The rating of the ships remained linked to the number of their guns. The layout of the ships in the decks and gun arrangements still settled their ranks as liners, frigates, corvettes and sloops. The rigging distinguished the smaller types, like brigs ('Niagara').

Even so some very successful efforts were made to improve the construction of wooden fighting ships that can still be seen in a number of survivors. Naturally there were also disputed alterations like the British initiative in the 1830's to create faster sailers by designing ships, that were wide at the water-line with rounded bilges and a 'V' shape to the underwater part of the hull. It resulted in fast sailers indeed but also in very unstable gun-platforms, especially in bad weather conditions.

Furthermore, trials were held and programs approved with the intent to enforce more radical changes. In Great Britain, wrought iron instead of wood was tried in the 1840's for the building of fighting ships as big as paddle and screw driven frigates. After gun trials however, iron plates were suspected to be more vulnerable to solid shot and shellfire then thick planking. A French Program, later copied in Great Britain, to build floating armoured batteries in the early 1850's did prove its effectiveness in the Crimean war but was soon overtaken by the development of ironclad battleships. The French navy already started a program to build seagoing screw driven ironclads in 1857.

Although it didn't much affect the external appearance of the major warship, it was steam propulsion and the development of iron technologies in the early 19th century that really changed naval architecture in a way never experienced before.

Improvements in the construction of wooden warships

Around 1810, an improved method in framing wooden hulls, credited to the Chief Surveyor of the British Royal Navy, Sir Robert Seppings, was generally accepted. This method added diagonal frames to the inside of the hold of the hull, crossing the transverse frames at 45 degrees. For some time frames were also placed diagonally between the parallel deck beams. Together with additional longitudinal timbers this resulted in a construction of considerable strength and rigidity although much heavier then before. The effects of this increase in weight on sailing performance could however be compensated by the now allowed construction of longer hulls. For instance, the gundeck of the British first rate liner 'Victory' (1765) measured 186 feet but the gundeck of the last British wooden first rate ship of the line, the steamer 'Victoria' (1859), was already 250 feet long. Displacement had doubled from 3500 to 6959 tons. A new tendency for larger sizes of frigates was established in the 1810's and confirmed by the early battle successes of the huge American frigates, like 'Constitution' (1797) in the Anglo-American war of 1812-1814. It originated constant pressure to enlarge the frigate, eventually reaching a length of 336 feet (the longest wooden warship ever built) in the British frigates 'Mersey' and 'Orlando' in the 1850's. The increase in size of the frigate, allowing her to carry more and heavier guns, also gave her the role of most important workhorse in the navies.

In connection to the diagonal framing, the reshaping of the bow and the stern, due to the classic vulnarability of their original forms to gunfire and bad weather alike, was generally accepted. The raised round bow, gradually introduced in the late 18th century, dislodged the old square light bulwark above the upper deck. The building in of round bows was ordered for all British ships around 1811. Even 'Victory' received a - now removed - round bow during her last active service period with the fleet. The circular stern replaced the square stern, that had already lost its open built-in galleries at the end of the 18th century (the 1801/1803 rebuild of 'Victory' deprived her of her open built-in galleries and gave her the present closed square stern). The new shaped circular stern, that had a great impact on the construction of the hull, not only contributed to the hull's strength but also facilitated the placing of additional guns for stern-fire. In the 1820's the circular stern, disliked by the oficers, was nevertheless modified to a more squarer form, the so called elliptical stern.
The hull of the sail frigate 'Unicorn' (1824) was constructed with a circular stern, while the sail frigate 'Trincomalee' (1817) received an elliptical stern during a rebuild in 1845.

Another notable alteration, soon to be introduced in the 19th century, was the widespread replacement of the wooden knees (the bended pieces of timber connecting the frames to the deck beams) and other connecting parts by wrought-iron ones because of the acute shortage of timbers for the purpose. Furthermore the hole in the waist of the ships gradually got narrower until it finally closed in the 1830's, creating the upper deck. In conclusion it must be stated, that solid bulwarks as shown in D. Fernando II e Gloria (1843) - even up to six feet high in ships of the line - and decreasing tumblehomes changed the appearance of the ships more then superficial.

'Unicorn' (1824) is considered to be one of the best surviving examples of a historic sailing ship, unifying all the mentioned adaptions in her construction. Maybe the design of the large sailing sloop 'Constellation' (1855) represents the peak of development for the wooden pure sailing warship.

Propulsion

Major warships depended exclusively on sails well into the 1840's. The allowed increase in size of hulls however anticipated on their later adjustment to the installation of boilers and steam engines. This became feasable with the advent of a servicable (Ericsson/Smith) screw for propulsion, that became only accepted after 1845 with the converted British blockship/liner 'Ajax' becoming the first steam battleship, soon to be followed by new built screw driven frigates. Boilers gradually provided higher pressure to higher speed horizontal steam engines, placed below the water line. Higher (but actually still low) pressure could be produced by the introduction of the rectangular multitubular boiler or 'box', replacing the early rectangular flue boiler.

To overcome the drag of the screw under sail it would have sufficed to disconnect it from the shaft and allow it to windmill in the vessels wake. In many cases however the ship's hull was additionally adapted to allow the raise of the screw as well. A doubtful adaption that could cause great strains on the hull while sailing.

Paddle driven steam powered ships, mostly small sized and at first only in essential but secundary roles (tug, dispatch vessel, survey vessel etc.), were already in naval use since the 1820's. Their early side lever steam engines were still heavy and occupied a lot of ship's space. Unlike the coal consumption, their performances were low. With steadily improving (oscillating) engines, delivering increasing power, the naval paddle steamer became suitable for more mature roles around 1840. By then fully rigged paddle fighting ships were built with a fair amount of guns, classed as sloops and frigates. Its deficiencies (amoungst them the supposed vulnarability of the wheels and propulsion plant to gunfire and the valuable space for weapons obstructed by the wheels) but in particular the potentials of the screw, rendered the paddle fighting ship already obsolete in the early 1850's; leaving the paddler again in mostly auxiliary tasks.
The replica Dutch/Japanese paddler 'Soembing' or 'Kanko Maru' (1850/1987) is the only specimen in the world of a 19th century naval paddler style of ship.

By 1851 both Great Britain (with 'Agamemnon') and France (with 'Napoleon') succeeded in completing the first new built screw driven liners. Still fully rigged (in particular for patrolling and making passages), the single screw driven warship of the 1850's still looked like her sailing predecessor. But the important innovative development of the screw definitely ended the career of the sailing man-of-war.

The last active serving former screw driven wooden battleship, the British liner 'Conway', a training ship since 1876, was accidentaly wrecked in the Menai Straits (North Wales) in 1953! (Originally she was 'Nile', an early 19th century sail liner, that was commissioned for the first time after having been lengthenend and given engines in 1853). Nowadays the large Danish screw frigate 'Jylland' (1860) is the only existing example of a wooden hybrid steam and sail fighting ship.

Ordnance

Naval main armament still consisted of smooth-bore muzzle loading guns in several calibres, supplemented with carronades, until the late 1850's.
The iron gun (differing in length and weight) was cast solid and subsequently bored out to take shot of the desired calibre. It was mounted on a truck carriage, that was controlled by rope and tackle, to take up the recoil when firing the spherical solid shot. Elevation of the barrel relied on a wooden quoin.
The carronade, widely accepted in the late 18th century, was a short light-barreled gun with a large bore. This type of gun could be mounted on a wooden slide carriage (with a worm screw at the breech to angle the barrel) because of its moderate recoil. The carronade, throwing spherical hollow shot with a low initial velocity, had a highly destructive effect but only at short range (around 100 yards). For this reason, ships could never rely on a main armament that only consisted of carronades.

For reasons of efficiency a change in ships armament was accepted in the 1830's by the standardization of guns to fewer calibres. The choosen calibres, among them 32-, 24-, 18- and/or 12-pounders (the weight of the spherical solid shot) with barrels of different length and weight, meant that only few sizes of shot had to be carried. A small number of larger 42, 56 or even 68-pounder chase-guns was nevertheless retained in the bow and the stern. These heavy chase-guns even became the main armament in the mature paddle driven steam warships of the 1840's with their limited space to carry guns on the broadside. From this period the chase-guns were usually mounted on heavy slide carriages pivoting on traversing-rings.

More accuracy and safety in firing guns, by improving the certainty of ignition, was achieved through the introduction in the 1840's of the percussion lock firing mechanism. This device replaced the flint lock, a late 18th century successor itself of the lighted match. The strive for accuracy also saw the gradual acceptance of sights on the barrels although a hit at over 1000 yards distance remained a matter of chance even in good weather conditions.

Although shell-firing mortars, mounted on bomb-vessels had already been used in the 18th century, there were great hesitations in changing to shell-firing guns for naval use. Some very bad accidents by fire and explosion in ships, that carried them as a result of small scale application in the 1820's, confirmed their unreliability and unsafety. Also disappointing were the limitations in range and in the destructive effect on impact of the hollow spherical shell with time fuse. French ships nevertheless began to carry shell-firing guns in the 1820's (in response to the influential opinions of Colonel Paixhans), followed by the British in the late 1830's. Even then a mixed armament of shell-firing and solid-shot firing guns was commonly mounted. As against guns firing solid shot, shell-firing guns became known by the bore in inches.

The abolishment of the smooth-bore gun was nearby with the introduction in the late 1850's of servicable rifled guns, firing cylindrical shells.

World affairs and sea power

Napoleonic Europe

The regime, established in 1799 by the consul and from 1804 the emperor Napoleon Bonaparte found a firm base in the French army and in French revolutionary aspirations to overthrow the old European monarchies. Austria on the continent and Great Britain at sea remained the main opponents to these aspirations after the French inspired dismantling and finally dissolvment of the 'Heilige Romische Reich' in the first years of the new 19th century. Prussia tried to uphold a neutral position in Central Europe.

The Napoleonic period was the final act in a almost continuous hostile relationship between France and Great Britain since the late 17th century. The actual fighting between the two nations mainly took place at sea. In this context the early years of the 19th century witnissed British maritime blockades of the European continental coasts. Furthermore, there were actions such as in the waters off Malta in 1800, off Algeciras in 1801 and in the Battle of Copenhagen in 1801. The crucial Battle off Trafalgar (a cape between the Spanish town Cadiz and Gibraltar) in 1805, with vast deployment of sailing battleships, eventually crushed French naval power at least for the next 25 years. But even after Trafalgar there were still naval encounters, for instance off San Domingo in 1806, in the second Battle of Copenhagen - this time bringing a complete defeat to the Danish fleet - in 1807, in the Battle of Tamatave (Madagascar) in 1811 and in the Adriatic Sea off Venice, also in 1811.

Deprived of aspirations outside the European continent after the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, Napoleonic France focussed its attention with success to the subjection of nations on the European mainland, eventually forcing Prussia and even Austria into alliances. Furthermore a desastrous continental trade system was introduced and enforced in occupied Europe to exclude Great Britain from the benefits of European trade. On its turn Great Britain responded with a reinforced counter-blockade of the European mainland in addition to earlier restrictions imposed on trading operations of foreign sea going nations.

The mentioned hostile maritime trade measures of the belligerent powers placed the United States of America as a neutral sea trading nation in a delicate position. A position that led to the non declared quasi-war with France during 1798-1800 and eventually to the war of 1812-1814 with Great Britain. The latter war was mainly known for the actions of heavy sailing frigates on the high seas and of smaller ships on the Great Lakes in Northern America.

The pact, France and Russia entered into in 1807 (followed by the British naval expedition to the Baltic Sea in 1808) with the intention to divide their respective influence in Europe, collapsed in 1812. Russian denial of military assistance in the French trial of strength with Austria and the ongoing Russian ignorance of the continental trade system caused irreversible French indignation. The following well known campaign of the 'Grande Armee' to Russia, that even reached Moscow, preluded the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte. The French debacle in Russia inspired the European nations to join Great Britain in its struggle with France. The battles of Leipzig in 1813 and Waterloo in 1815 definitely broke early 19th century French expansionism.

French European dominance had reached its zenith in 1812, when Napoleonic occupation or control through vassal states stretched out to Germany, Poland, The Netherlands, Denmark and the greater parts of Italy and the Iberian peninsula. France returned to its original borders of 1792 after the fall of the Napoleonic regime.

Restauration and nationalism

Interrupted by the return of Napoleon Bonaparte from Elba, the European nations held a congress in 1814/1815 in Vienna with the aim to restore the balance of power through restoration of the old monarchies. Among the outcomes of the congress was the raise of a new loose confederation of German speaking countries in Central Europe with Austria and Prussia in leading positions. The extension of the Austrian, Prussian and Russian territories can also be credited to the Vienna Congress. Furthermore the United Provinces and The Netherlands originated together as a new kingdom and Norway was seperated from Denmark but subsequently brought under the control of Sweden. The Austrian minister Von Metternich, giving guidance to the congress, reluctantly pointed out Italy as a 'geographical notion' (dominated by Austria).

Great Britain was confirmed in its maritime supremacy, that lasted for the rest of the 19th century with the retainment of Heligoland, Gibraltar and Malta. After 1820 Great Britain kept distance from conservative European continental politics in maintaining 'splendid isolation' and even showing sympatthy with the revolutions in Greece and South America. The nation's stability and wealth during the 19th century is symbolic in the reign of Queen Victoria from 1837 until her death in 1901. A supreme fleet was however deemed necessary to maintain maritime supremacy in the relationship with other European nations.

Nationalist and liberal movements led to freedom wars on the European continent in the decades, following the Vienna Congress. Greece fought a long but successful freedom war against Turkey (1821-1830) and Belgium forced its seperation from The Netherlands (1830-1839). Naval actions, with beginning roles for steamships, took place during the freedom war of Greece although the decisive Battle of Navarino in 1827 was still an 'all sails' affair. In fact it was the last time in history that wooden sailing men of war engaged in battle.

The separation of Belgium (supported by the appearance of British paddle driven naval ships on the river De Schelde in 1832) was the direct result of nationalist uprise, that started in France in 1830 and swept over Europe the same year. A repetition of revolutionary uprise during 1848, actually caused by economic misery in the larger European cities, even threatened Austrian unity and aroused Italian and German desire for national identity. Again these movements could be suppressed (in Austria and Italy) or they just faded away (in Germany, because the Prussian king refused to accept the crown of the proposed German empire from a civil movement).
The German unification movement had even paved the way for the purchase of ships to equip the first navy, representing all the German states. The ships already had to be sold the next year!

Still an absolute ruler, Czar Nicholas I tried to extend Russian territory and influence to the south at the cost of the weakened Turkish empire in the early 1850's. A previous Russian attempt to reach an understanding with the British failed and the Crimean war against Turkey, France and Great Britain (and later Sardinia), that started in 1853, could not be avoided. The Crimean war (a confusing name as to naval activities because there was also the deployment of a combined Anglo-French fleet in the Baltic Sea) saw the much increased mobility of ships and troops by the extensive use of screw driven steam battleships. The shell-gun was convincingly demonstrated (Sinope) and armoured floating batteries proved their effectiveness against coastal batteries (Kinburn).
Austria and Prussia remained neutral during this war, that was lost by Russia in 1856. The victory of the British-French alliance restored the prestige of France and the regime of Napoleon III but it also marked the start of new period of Anglo-French naval rivalry. The tensions between Turkey and Russia lived on for the rest of the century.

A revolutionary movement under Garibaldi finally finished foreign occupation of Italian soil after an Austrian-French treaty in 1859 had prevented the establishment of Italian independence with French military support. The Italian kingdom, that soon developed naval aspirations to equal the French navy in the Mediterranean, was proclaimed in 1861.

Appointed as Prussian chancellor in 1862, Von Bismarck focussed his attention on the German unification - with the exclusion of Austria - under Prussian leadership. Previously a war over Schleswig and Holstein was fought against Denmark in an alliance with Austria during 1864. The Battle off Heligoland, fought during this conflict, was the last engagement of wooden built (hybrid steam and sail) warships in a sea battle. A conflict over the administration of the conquered territories a few years later formed an excuse for the Prussian governement to challange the Austrian position in Central Europe by force.

New nations and empires

Outside Europe the South American possessions of Spain gained freedom in 1825 under the military leadership of Simon Bolivar but almost immediately began to fall apart in ever more different states. The new nations were soon recognized by Great Britain and the United States, the latter nation acting in accordance with the Monroe-doctrine. The independence of Brasil was peacefully recognized by Portugal in 1822.

With the exception of Alaska, that was bought from Russia in 1867, the United States settled its boundaries on the North American continent in 1853 after buying Louisiana from France (1803), Florida from Spain (1819), New Mexico and Upper California from Mexico (1848) and at last South Arizona from Mexico (1853). The admission of Texas to the United States caused the American-Mexican war of 1846-1848, that was lost by Mexico.

The continuing annoyance of Barbary pirates during the first decades of the 19th century called for permanent naval presence from the major seagoing nations in the Mediterranean and inflicted American (Tripoli, 1804) and Anglo-Dutch (Algiers, 1816) bombardments of the North African shores. France eventually conquered Algeria in a war that lasted from 1830 to 1847 thus unlocking the Northern Sahara. Great Britain definitely occupied the South African Cape colony after 1806. France, Great Britain, Portugal and Spain kept economic and political interests on the North and West African coast during the first half of the century. Especially the British Royal Navy made considerable efforts to prevent the slave trade on the West African coasts.

The rebellious Egyptian regime of Mehemed Ali kept causing unrest in the weakened but gradually modernizing Turkish empire from the 1830's. The British naval bombardment and subsequent occupation of the Syrian coastal town St. Jean d'Acre in autumn 1840 proved to be an important event in the suppression of Egyptian uprise.

In Asia the Opium-war, fought between China and Great Britain in 1840-1842, was decided by a fleet of some eighty British warships. The ships bombarded the Chinese coasts and several (paddle driven steamships)sailed the Yangtse to Nanking. The victory opened opportunities for many European settlements on the Chinese coasts and the administration of Hongkong was even transferred to Great Britain. A second war in 1856-1860 saw the occupation of Beijng with French, British and American involvement. This war broke the last resistance against European influence and settlement. A combined Anglo-French fleet strongly contributed to the Chinese subjection.

The isolation of Japan was lifted in 1854 after the display of naval force by the United States Navy in the Bay of Tokio in 1853. Western naval manifestation against Japan lasted until 1864.

In India, the British Government took over control from the East India Company in 1858, creating a firm base for British influence in Asia. With other possessions like Canada, Australia and New Zealand, a British world-wide empire was established. This stretched empire relied on a large fleet for policing duties to enforce 'Pax Brittannica'.

Review on major maritime events

The Battle of Trafalgar 1805

The Battle of Trafalgar originated from the plans of Napoleonic France to invade Great Britain in 1805 under the protection of the fleet. For this purpose, the gathered ships at Toulon and Brest had to break the blockades of their respective ports. This intention was partly realised with the undetected escape early 1805 of the Toulon Fleet, that managed to pass the Straits of Gibraltar and join Spanish ships from Cadiz. This combined fleet under the command of Admiral Villeneuve set sail for Martinique with orders for actions in the region. The aim was to disperse the British Navy and create opportunities for the French ships at Brest to leave port.

Nelson, already a famous British admiral and with his flagship 'Victory' in command of the British Mediterranean Fleet, started a search as soon as he became aware of the escape from Toulon. At first chasing in the wrong eastern direction in the Mediterranean and only after loosing a lot of time crossing the Atlantic to the West Indies. Upon arrival, he could only sail all the way back because Villeneuve had already returned to Europe. Back in Europe and after a short encounter with British ships, the French-Spanish Fleet arrived at Corunna, northern Spain. The British ships took positions near Cadiz or reinforced the fleet off Brest. Nelson sailed home in 'Victory'.

In august 1805 the French-Spanish Fleet raised anchors and contrary to the emperor's orders, headed for the Straits of Gibraltar, instead of the English Channel, with the intention to return to the Mediterranean. To prevent this from happening, Nelson who had resumed command of the British Fleet near Cadiz - where Villeneuve's fleet paused - in the end confronted the 33 battleships of Villeneuve near Cape Trafalgar with his own 27 battleships on the 21st October 1805. Both fleets mainly consisted of ships that carried 74 guns (third rates in the British Royal Navy) although there were also ships, carrying more then 100 guns like 'Victory' and like the huge Spanish 'Santisima Trinidad' (130 guns). Discarding the so called 'Fighting Instructions', the British Fleet was divided in two columns, that sailed like two spears at right-angles towards the curved enemy line with the intention to pass through in two places. As expected the British were punished heavily with concentrated fire on approaching but at close range they returned fire with devastating effect as they penetrated the line and passed the sterns of the enemy ships. During the close action battle that followed in the next hours, both fleets sustained heavy damage with Nelson being mortally wounded by a sharpshooter's bullet. The Spanish-French Fleet however was decisevely defeated with Villeneuve taken prisoner and with 18 ships, that had struck their colours and 1 that had blown up.

Although the blockade off Brest was weakenend for a short time during the before mentioned events, the French ships didn't leave port.

The Anglo-American War of 1812-1814

Under Congressional pressure the American president Madison declared war on Great Britain in 1812. The American war mood resulted from the British claim to search neutral ships, including the American merchantmen, for deserted British sailors and for attempts to evade the British trade embargo against the French regime. The United States felt deeply prejudiced and in return made it their object to affect British naval supremacy and to invade Canada. Unfortunatley to the Americans, both goals were not achieved. The tragedy with this bitter fought war was that it was declared when the British had just decided to settle their dispute over 'rights of search' with the Americans.

The tiny U.S. Navy, consisting of 7 frigates and 9 smaller types and underestimated by the Britains, obtained its greatest successes during the first year of war in single ship actions with relatively large and fast frigates. The American warships and privateers not only inflicted great damage on British sea trade by capturing many merchantmen. It was the defeat of a number of British frigates in actions during which the American frigates proved to be superior, that shocked Britain. 'Constitution' defeated four British frigates on three different occasions. 'United States' captured another one, 'Macedonian' off the Canary Islands.
On the Great Lakes an American squadron with the flagship 'Niagara' secured the Northwest Territory in the Battle of Lake Erie in 1813. The defeat of a British squadron on Lake Champlain prevented an invasion southward from Montreal in 1814.

The famous 'Constitution' on the other hand turned down the invitation to fight a duel with the large British frigate 'Leander', blockading Boston in 1814. The defeat of 'Chesapeake' by the British frigate 'Shannon' in 1812 and the capture of 'President' in 1814, likewise were signs of the overwhelming British strength at sea. (The name 'President' still carries on in the former HMS 'President' on the Victoria Embankment, London; the gun-deck timbers of 'Chesapeake' survive in a Hampshire water mill). The capture of the American frigate "Essex" by the British "Phoebe" north of Valparaiso, Chile, in 1814 can be imputed to the short ranging carronade armament of the former ship, making it impossible to reach the latter.
Eventually the blockade of American ports by the British Royal Navy 'bottled up' the American warships.

In 1814 the 'Second war of Independence' saw the American Capital Washington taken by British troops, brought into Chesapeake Bay with ships of the British Royal Navy. The troops returned to their ships after they had burned public buildings like the Capitol and the White House. A similar attack on Baltimore however failed to succeed. A few months later the war ended with a peace treaty, signed in Ghent, The Netherlands in december 1814. It settled the still existing boundaries between the United States and Canada.

The Crimean War 1853 - 1856

Disruption of the European political balance through Russian expansionism at the cost of the decaying Turkish empire led to an occasional alliance in the 1850's between France, Great Britain and Turkey. Turkey declared war on Russia in october 1853 after Russian troops entered Moldavia as a first step in the Russian ambition for free acccess to the Mediterranean. A month later a Turkish squadron of 6 sailing frigates at anchor off Sinope (Black Sea coast, Turkey) was totally destroyed by shell-fire from a Russian fleet, consisting of 6 sailing liners, 2 sailing frigates and 2 small steam vessels. This so-called 'massacre of Sinope' led both France and Great Britain to come to the assistance of Turkey and they declared war on Russia in March 1854. The allied navies fought the forthcoming war, known as the Crimean War (the land war was confined to the Crimean peninsular), mainly in the Black- and the Baltic Seas. The Chinese coasts and the Kamchatka area in Asia ('Trincomalee') and Alaska represented other more confined theatres of allied naval activity.

Although there were no major engagements between warships, this war definitely marked the transition of the sailing warship to the steam warship. The fleets in the Black and the Baltic Seas mainly depended on steam propulsion in 1854 and almost exclusively consisted of steam driven ships in the course of 1855. The unpreceded mobility in transportion of troops in the Black Sea with steam driven warships set new standards.
Coastal waters in both areas urged for screw gunboats with shallow draught and vast programs to build them were started in Great Britain, especially in private building yards on the Thames. Most of these small vessels could not be completed in time for war services.

From april 1854, an allied fleet with over 30 British and French liners was sent into the Baltic Sea, imposing blockades on Riga (now Lituvania) and Sveaborg (now Finland). Before leaving the Baltic Sea in autumn, the forts of Bomarsund on the then Russian island Aaland were conquered and blown up.

In the Black Sea preliminary bombardments on Odessa during spring 1854 preceded an immense invasion of the Crimean peninsula with 70.000 troops in September that year under the protection of the vast combined fleets. The assault by these troops on Sebastopol in October was accompanied by a fleet bombardment of the forts, protecting Sebastopol Harbor. The engagement between the shore-based guns in the forts and the guns of the steam driven battleships resulted in minor damage to the forts. The damage inflicted upon the ships proved to be worse although none of the ships was lost. The assault itself ended in a siege that lasted almost a year until september 1855 when Sebastopol finally surrendered. By then all the ships of the Russian Black Sea Fleet, trapped in Sebastopol, were sunk due to the hands of their own crews. Besides single ship bombardments of Sebastopol during 1855, there were allied naval actions in the Sea of Azov with the aim to capture Russian supplies, stored in the region. Gunboats, small sail and steam warships with a few heavy guns, were successfully deployed during these actions.
In October 1855 a successful naval attack was launched on the fort of Kinburn, that was situated on a spit at the entrance to the Dnieper Bay. The attacking fleet consisted of liners, frigates, gunboats and other usual types but also comprised three screw driven armoured floating batteries of French origin. (The batteries were under tow at sea due to their poor performances) Anchoring at close range they sustained very little damage from the fort's guns hence convincingly proving the value of armour plates, mounted on a ship's side!

In the Baltic Sea the British-French Fleet, this time exclusively consisting of steam driven ships, returned during May 1855, blockading Kronstadt and Sveaborg. For the first time in history, ships faced the dangers of contact mines - though still primitive and easily to be spotted - during these operations. In August 1855, Sveaborg was bombarded with shells, rockets and mortars before the definite retreat of the Fleet with autumn's bad weather approaching.
The Russian Baltic Fleet never left the protection of Kronstadt during the allied expeditions in the Baltic Sea in 1854 and 1855.

The Peace Treaty of Paris in 1856 effectively made an end to the claims of the Czar (Nicolas I, who died in 1855 and in the meantime was succeeded by Alexander II) with regard to free access to the Mediterranean. Futhermore the London Convention of 1841 was confirmed, denying foreign warships the access to the Bosporus and the Dardanelles.

The Battle off Heligoland 1864

After centuries of dispute, the establishment of control over Schleswig and Holstein became subject to hostilities between Denmark and Prussia in 1848. During this conflict, the Danish liner 'Christian VIII' exploded on 5 April 1848 after having been set alight by the shell-firing shore-battery at Eckenforde. At the same occasion the frigate 'Gefion' was taken over after capitulation. Denmark on the other hand retained control over the territories concerned and the events also learned the Prussians, that the trade on the North and Baltic Seas could easely be blocked by Danish warships. The same year this awareness in fact led to the founding of the first navy, representing all the German states with the former Danish 'Gefion' becoming one of the first German naval ships. With the German unification movement faded within a year, Austria and Prussia were left as the only German states to retain warships.

In 1864 war broke out again over Schleswig and Holstein, but now Prussian and Austrian troops succeeded in defeating Denmark. During the conflict an indecisive fight between three Prussian and five Danish warships off Jasmund (the German Baltic island Rugen) in march 1864 already showed the capability of the Prussian Fleet to defend her own Baltic coasts. However the Prussian Fleet alone was not strong enough to withhold the Danish Fleet from blockading the North Sea ports as well. Austrian help was offered by a squadron, that sailed from the Mediterranean to the North Sea under the command of Captain Tegethoff, later to become legendary in the Battle off Lissa (1866). On the way, they were joined by several Prussian ships, returning from voyages abroad.

On 9th May 1864 an Austro-Prussian squadron, consisting of five wooden screw and paddle driven warships, went into combat with three wooden Danish screw warships, amoungst them 'Jylland', off (then British) Heligoland. After a few hours the Danes managed to set the Austrian flagship 'Schwarzenberg' alight, forcing Tegethoff to retreat into neutral British waters. Subsequently the Danish frigates withdrew to the Danish coast, giving opportunity to the Austro-Prussian ships to return to their homeport Cuxhaven. The Danish victory didn't effect the outcome of the war and with a ceasefire ahead the Danish blockade of the mouths of the Elbe and Weser was lifted. The war ended in 1864 with a peace treaty, signed in Vienna, that settled the cession of Schleswig and Holstein to Austria and Prussia.

Service and preservation records of surviving ships

Victory - Great Britain

At the turn of the 18th to the 19th century, 'Victory ' was already an old venerable first-rate (100 guns or more in the British Royal Navy) ship of the line. Being launched in 1765 at Chatham royal dockyard, she was commissioned for the first time in 1778. In the next two decades she saw extensive action as a flagship of not less then nine admirals. Amougst them the famous Jervis, who commanded the ship in the 1797 Anglo-Spanish Battle of St. Vincent (a cape in the south-west of Spain). She was paid off the same year to be used afterwards as a convict hulk and hospital.

In 1801 however, 'Victory' was subjected to a three-year refit, which amounted almost to a rebuild and changed her appearance similar to the one existing today. Admiral Nelson took her as his flagship in 1803. 'Victory' flew his flag in 1805 during the blockade of the Spanish town Cadiz and the ensueing Battle of Trafalgar, which really made the ship famous. After the battle, the severely damaged 'Victory', underwent provisional repairs at Gibraltar and then returned to Great Britain to bring Nelson's body home. Subsequently 'Victory' was reconditioned at Chatham, and in 1807 rerated as second rate (90 guns); her masts and yards were reduced, 24 pounder guns were substituted by 18 pounder guns, and her complement was reduced. As a second-rate ship of the line she continued serving in a very active way until 1812. She took part in the 1808 expedition to the Baltic as flagship of Admiral Saumerez and was involved in the evacuation of British ships from Corunna during 1809. In 1811 she carried reinforcements for the army of Sir Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington) to Lisbon

After ending her sea-going career in 1812, 'Victory' fulfilled various harbor-duties, eventually becoming flagship of the Commander-in chief, Portsmouth in 1889. Although in drydock since 1922, she remains in this role to this day and is still a warship in commission. Despite harbor duties the ship nearly sank in 1903 when the runaway ironclad 'Neptune' collided with her. In 1941 she was threatened by force once more when a German bomb landed in her drydock only to cause negligible damage to the hull.

The condition of the solid oak hull of 'Victory' eventually gave such cause for concern, that she was taken in drydock in 1922 as a result of negotiations between The Admiralty and the Society for Nautical Research. The Society succeeded in raising a large amount of money (around 80.000 pounds) from the public to enable the drydocking and the start of a five years taking restoration of the ship. During the restoration to her 1805 appearance, begun in 1923, small pieces of timber were sold to help defray costs. But of course dockyard resources proved to be indispensible to carry out the work. In 1925 'Victory' was floated for the very last time to bring her waterline level with the edge of the dock, in order to give her the appearance she had when afloat, her keel being settled on a stone base. After the completion of her restoration in 1928, the ship was inspected by King George V. Since these days 'Victory' is almost permanently subjected to minor and major repairs. At one time the ship was almost lost after all, due to the terror of woodworms. It is estimated nowadays, that just ten per cent of her original timbers remain and thirty five per cent are claimed to date from her glorious days at Cape Trafalgar.

Constitution - United States of America

In the first decades after the War of Independence, the United States of America gradually succeeded in expanding overseas trade and building up the merchant navy. American merchant-men however suffered increasingly from attacks by Barbary pirates from the North African coasts, who didn't hesitate to capture the crews of the ships as well. To protect American maritime interests, Congress decided in 1794 to build a standing navy, initially voting for six frigates. They were to become very powerful frigates, 'designed to outrun anything they could not outfight'. The building of 'Constitution', belonging to the first batch of three ships, was granted to Edmond Hartt Shipyard, Boston Massachusetts. After being launched in 1797 she was commissioned for the first time in 1798 to meet the threats opposed by French privateers in the West Indies during the quasi-war with France from 1798 until 1800. In 1803 she was sent to the Mediterranean to fight the Barbary pirates and as flagship of Commodore Prebble was involved in the bombardment of Tripoli in 1804.

The ship's true glory came during the Anglo-American War of 1812 when she showed her qualities and good fortune. In the year 1812 she destroyed the British frigates 'Guerriere', south of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and 'Java' off Brazil. 'Cyane' and 'Levant' were taken by her as late as February 1815. By doing so she earned her nickname 'Old Ironsides'. The enemy solid shot from 'Guerriere' should have bounced from her sides instead of penetrating them - hence her nickname. In 1815 she was laid up in Boston to be commissioned - after extensive reconditioning - again in 1821 as flagship of the Mediterranean squadron. In 1828 her service-days seemed over, being declared no longer seaworthy. Her scrapping was nevertheless prevented, owed to the inspiration by the poem 'Old Ironsides', published in many American newspapers. So 'Constitution' was repaired in 1833/1834 to join the Mediterranean fleet again in 1835 as flagship until 1855. In 1860 she returned to sea as a school ship, making her last voyage under sail in 1881. Afterwards she served as a receiving ship in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, with a barracks on top of her hull.

Some repairs were done to the battered hull of 'Constitution' (1797) before she was brought to Boston on the occasion of her 100st anniversary in 1897. Congress authorized her restoration in 1900 which actually was executed in 1907/1908. However a successfull fundraising campaign, started in 1925, was necessary to restore her thoroughly. In 1927 the extensive (about 100.000 dollar) restoration began in drydock. She came out of drydock in 1931 to start a three years and 22.000 sea miles lasting coast-to-coast promotion tour under tow. It took her to 90 American ports and while visiting them, she welcomed more then four and a half million visitors aboard. In 1934 she returned to Boston and stayed there ever since. Like 'Victory' she is still a commissioned warship, being flagship to the commanding-officer of the First Naval District. Once a year she is turned in Boston Harbor with some ceremony (the Turnaround Cruise, firing a 21 gun salute) to ensure even weathering at the pier she is moored to. In 1992 she was taken in drydock for another (almost four million dollar) major refit. In 1995 she was floated and then equipped to sailing condition again. She actually sailed in the summer of 1997 to commemorate her bicentennial. 'Constitution' is the oldest warship afloat in the world and declared a National Historic Landmark in The United States.

Niagara - United States of America

During the British-American war of 1812-1814 the belligerent parties were involved in a shipbuilding race with the aim to obtain control water transportation on Lake Erie.
On the American side the hastely built 'Niagara' was launched in 1813 in Erie, being one of six small warships (two brigs and four schooners). The building of the Lake Erie Squadron in this remote location was a remarkable feat with craftsmen recruited and material imported from other regions. Based at Erie Harbor and under the command of Commodore Perry, 'Niagara' became flagship of the nine ship American squadron during the Battle of Lake Erie in autumn 1813 after the original flagship, the brig 'Lawrence' was completely disabled. The outcome of the Battle was, that an entire British squadron of six warships (two ships, two brigs, one schooner and one sloop) was captured. This victory led to the reopening of American supply lines and troops could be ferried across Lake Erie to regain Detroit from the British.
After the war 'Niagara' continued her short service career as a station ship in Erie until 1820 when she was scuttled in Erie Harbor.

The wreck of 'Niagara' was raised in 1913 to build a reconstruction upon her keel and around other salvaged timbers to celebrate the centennial of the Battle of Lake Erie. Under tow the reconstructed ship participated in the ceremonies and visited several Great Lake ports. The replica returned to Erie afterwards and in 1931 the state took custody of her. The hull of the ship was completely restored between 1933 and 1943 and placed on a permanent cradle out of the water. Masts and riggings were finally installed in 1963. In the mid 1980's 'Niagara' was severely decayed again and she was closed to the public.

In 1987 a painstaking four million dollar restoration was started. Early techniques were used and again some 100 items from the original 1813/1913 vessel could be used. 'Niagara' with her pine framing and Douglas fir planking is back under sail and fully operational again since 1990. Participating in the 500th anniversary of Columbus' discovery of America, the ship visited all the main American and Canadian East Coast ports in 1992. Since then she is active on the Great Lakes in the summer periods but occasionally also has returned to the East Coast. In 1998 a maritime museum and berth for the ship were opened in Erie.

Trincomalee - Great Britain

Belonging to a batch of 47 Leda-class ('Leda' being a copy of the captured French frigate 'Hebe') frigates, the work on 'Trincomalee' began in 1816. Because of a serious shortage of oak trees in Britain , the building of 'Trincomalee' took place at the yard of the East India Company in Bombay, India, where teak was used. She was launched in 1817 and subsequently rigged and otherwise prepared for the voyage home. Pausing at Ceylon she sailed to England, arriving there in 1819. With fewer naval commitments after the Napoleonic wars she was roofed over for protection and laid up ('placed in ordinary') in Portsmouth Harbor.

Because of the excellent condition of the teak hull, her time in reserve ended in 1845. In these days it was still common in the British Navy to keep pools from where ships were commissioned to replace those coming home. The ships in the pool might be new but could also be forty years old. Surely it was proof of still slow developments in naval architecture.
'Trincomalee' was adjusted to requirements through a 'razee' (cut down) of her hull to reduce the number of her guns though the size of individual pieces increased. Furthermore her square stern was made elliptical.

In 1847 she was commissioned at last to take up duties on the North American and West Indies Station. She was ordered north to patrol the St Lawrence Estuary and the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador in 1849 before sailing home in 1850. After repair and refit she was sent out again in 1852 to join the Pacific squadron on the west coast of North America. During the Crimean war she joined a squadron of some eleven English and French ships with the uneventful order to seek and destroy Russian frigates in Kamchatkan waters (Bering Sea). Afterwards 'Trincomalee' resumed her peace-time duties, based at Vancouver, until she was ordered home late in 1856. After the return voyage round Cape Horn she arrived at Chatham in 1857 to end her active service with the fleet. In 1861 she was given a stationary training role in Hartlepool (!) and Southampton. In 1895 replaced and 'reduced to reserve' she was finally sold to the breakers at Portsmouth.

By chance she gained a new lease of life as the privately owned nautical training ship 'Foudroyant'. She replaced the ship, originally bearing that name and once Nelson's flagship, that had been wrecked in a storm off Blackpool some time before. The next ninety years, until 1986, she saw service in this training role in Falmouth, Milford Haven and later Portsmouth.

Foudroyant & Implacable at Falmouth 1927

 

After ending training programs, the 'Foudroyant Trust', owner of 'Trincomalee' put the ship on a barge in 1987 and moved her to Hartlepool (near Newcastle, Great Britain), homeport of the 'Warrior' restoration-workforce. After a few years of negotiation, the Trust (since 1992 : HMS Trincomalee Trust) decided that the ship was to stay there for restauration and subsequent display. The estimated 5 million pounds costing restoration started in 1989 with the stripping of redundant fittings, followed by the repair and partial replacement of frames and planking above the waterline.
Before 'Trincomalee' was taken in drydock in 1996, new masts and riggings were also fitted. In drydock, part of the newly-created Hartlepool Maritime Heritage Centre, the work on the underwater part of hull continues. The West African Opepe hardwood is used for the replacement of timbers instead of the nowadays rare and expensive teak. However it is estimated, that 'Trincomalee' will still have 65% of her original timbers intact when she is fully restored. Before refloating, which is planned in 2000, her hull will be coppered again.

'Trincomalee' is the centrepiece of the mentioned Heritage Centre, a recreated early 19th century harborquay that surrounds the drydock. The complex is located on the site of what used to be a commercial shipyard.

Unicorn - Great Britain

Image from: http://www.frigateunicorn.org/

Like 'Tricomalee', the British frigate 'Unicorn' belongs to the Leda class of frigates but being of a later date, she incorporates more of the innovations accepted in the construction of wooden hulls during the 1810's and 1820's. During building at Chatham Dockyard she was destined to be put into reserve and therefore she may already have been roofed over before launching in 1824. As a ship 'in ordinary' she was used for various secondary roles such as a powder hulk at Woolwich on the Thames and on The Medway. Unlike 'Trincomalee' she was never taken out of reserve and only made a sea voyage in 1873 when she was towed from Sheerness to Dundee. In Dundee she became the new Royal Navy training ship and Royal Navy Reserve base for the area. During her days in this role she was modified to raise the roof to allow drills to be held. 'Unicorn' was transferred to the newly formed Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve in 1906. During both World Wars she served as the headquarters for the senior naval officer in Dundee. 'Unicorn' remained part of the RNR/RNVR until she was finally decommissioned in 1968.

After decommissioned the ship was taken over by the 'Unicorn Preservation Society', a private charitable trust with the intention of 'restoring her to her original condition'. The achievement of this aim, that comprised masting, was however delayed by lack of funds. In the light of recent research this was probably for the best because it revealed, that the roof of 'Unicorn' is around 100 years older than the ship. It is a wooden structure, similar to the roofs used for the sheds at the British naval dockyards, and it was used on two other ships prior to use on 'Unicorn'. This fact has led to a change in policy in regard to the ships's future and the idea of masting the ship has been abandoned. The 'Unicorn Preservation Society' now concentrates on preservation and maintenance of the ship and its roof as an important artefact in its own right. 'Unicorn' is open to the public on a regular basis since 1975 and was granted full museum status in 1992. She is berthed in Victoria Dock, Dundee together with another museumship, RRS 'Discovery', once an arctic expeditionary-ship. Plans for the near future forsee in a survey of the ship with a view to dry-docking, building a visitor centre and generally improving visitor facilities.

D. Fernando II e Gloria - Portugal

The frigate 'D. Fernando II e Gloria' was built of teak in the shipyard of the old Portugese colony Damao (near Bombay, India) as the last locally built big ship for the Portugese navy. After launching in 1843 she was towed to Goa where she was fitted out as a full-rigged sailing ship. Her maiden voyage, from Goa to Lisbon, took place in 1845 and during the next 33 years 'D. Fernando' made numerous voyages from Portugal to the colonies in India, Mozambique and Angola. She was the last warship on the so called 'India run', the regular military route that linked Portugal to the Asian colonies for over three centuries. In 1865 she substituted the sailing ship 'Vasco da Gama' as the navy's artillery school ship.

In the training role for ensigns 'D. Fernando' made her last voyage in 1878 to the Azores, being the last frigate under sail to serve in the Portugese Navy. It was during this last voyage, that she was able to rescue the crew of the American barque 'Lawrence Boston' that had caught fire off the archipelago. The former frigate continued to serve as the Naval Artillery School until 1938, having been substantially remodelled for this role in 1889. Then she was transferred to the 'Frigate D. Fernando Welfare Institution' to serve stationary in the Tagus for general and nautical education purposes to the benefit of boys from poor families. She was partially destroyed by fire in 1963 and, healed over to port, got stuck in the mud-bottom of the river.

The spectacular rebirth of 'D. Fernando II e Gloria' started with the signing in October 1990 of a protocol between the Portugese Navy and The National Commission for the Commemoration of the Portugese Discoveries. The ship was placed under the care of the Navy (Arsenal do Alfeite) again and the restoration and rebuilding was granted to the shipyard 'Ria-Marine' in Aveiro. In January 1992 the remains of 'D. Fernando' were raised from the mud where she had rested for almost thirty years. With financial contributions from government, companies and foundations, the reconstruction work of the hull was carried out in the next five years. The ship returned to Lisbon in 1997 to complete the restoration. 'D Fernando', again a commissioned warship in the Portugese navy, served as an important attraction of the World Expo in 1998.

Soembing / Kanko Maru - The Netherlands / Japan

After two centuries of Chinese and Dutch trade monopoly, it became clear around 1850 that Japan would be forced to give up its international isolation. The unlocking of Japan in 1854 was accelerated by the appearance of an American naval squadron, known as the black ships of Perry (the brother of Lake Erie's Perry), in the Bay of Edo (Tokio) in 1853. The Americans demanded the opening of two Japanese harbors to American merchantships after preceding frustrating years of fruitless negotiations. The American demands were met the next year on the return of Perry.

Besides triggering a chain of foreign trade agreements in 1858, the American action sharpened the Japanese sense of vulnarability in international relations. The lack of shipyards and skills to build modern warships urged the Japanese government to contact foreign shipbuilding nations, the Dutch among them, with requests for rush deliveries. Unable to meet the demand to build and deliver a frigate and a corvette within a year but eager to obtain future orders, the Dutch responded with the donation of one of their own paddle driven steam warships to the Japanese shogun.

The wooden barque rigged ship, chosen for this purpose, was built in 1850 in the Royal Naval Dockyard at Amsterdam as 'Soembing'. Launched in 1852, she left for the Mediterranean soon after being commissioned by the Dutch Navy in 1853. A year later, after receiving maintenance at Constantinople, she set course for the Dutch East Indies and arrived at Batavia (now Jakarta) in 1854. The following period she made several journeys in the archipelago but also visited Hongkong and Deshima (Nagasaki, Japan). Being in Nagasaki in 1855, she was transferred to the newly formed Japanese navy as a gift from the Dutch King Willem III, being the first modern Japanese warship. She was renamed 'Kanko Maru' or fireship. Some sources however mention 'Kwanko Maru' or firemountain.

The Dutch also established a naval arsenal and a naval training institute at Nagasaki, where Japanese boys from noble families were educated under Dutch supervision until 1859. 'Kanko Maru' served for practical training in addition to the theoretical lessons. The Dutch gesture probably had the desired effect as some five orders for ships were received from Japan in the next years. The ultimate fate of 'Kanko Maru' is somewhat obscure.

Resistance against European presence in Japan lasted until 1865 following the display of naval power by Western warships in the Bay of Hiogo (Now Kobe). Foreign warships (among them the Dutch screw corvette 'Medusa') were previously shot at in the straits of Shimonoseki by shore based batteries during 1863, followed by an international expedition a few months later, that eliminated the coastal batteries concerned. During the same year a British squadron bombarded Kagosjima (well known for the accidents occurring with the first generation of Armstrong's breech loading rifled guns) while the coastal batteries of Hirosjima-Tjosjoe were destroyed by an allied fleet in 1864.

In september 1986 the Dutch shipyard Verolme Heusden signed a contract for the construction of a full size replica of the original 'Soembing' of 1850. The principal was the Dutch theme park 'Huis Ten Bosch Holland Village' or 'Oranda Mura', located near Nagasaki, Japan. 'Soembing' was the second assignment from 'Holland Village' to a Dutch shipyard after a replica of the 17th century East-India-man 'Prins Willem' was delivered in 1985.

The replica paddler was officially named 'Kanko Maru' in January 1988 in Amsterdam in the near vicinity of the former royal naval dockyard where the original 'Soembing' was built. A few days later the ship left for Nagasaki under her own power. She is now one of many attractions at Nagasaki's 'Huis Ten Bosch Resort and Theme Park'.

Constellation - United States of America

The ship rigged 'Constellation' was launched in 1854 at the Gosport Navy Yard in Norfolk as the largest U.S. Navy's all sail sloop of war. 'Constellation' was also the last all-sail powered warship in the U.S. Navy. After a deployment in the Mediterranean she interdicted slave traders off the coast of Africa from 1859 to 1861. She captured three slave traders and saved hundreds of people from slavery. One of the captured slavers, 'Triton' was the first naval capture in the American Civil War. The next two years she spent on the Mediterranean station, where she took part in blockading the Confederate commerce carrier 'Sumter' at Gibraltar. 'Constellation' finished the war as a receiving ship at Norfolk following a short period of blockading squadron duty off the Americn coast. After the war she saw various duties like carrying famine relief to Ireland in 1880.

From 1873 to 1893 she served as a training ship for Naval Academy midshipsmen and was still used in 1878 for the transportation of precious American works of art to the Paris World Exposition. She was placed out of commission at Annapolis in 1893. After 1893 she lingered on into the 1920's as a stationary training ship. In 1914 she was displayed at Baltimore to commemorate the writing of the national anthem and 1926 again at Philadelphia to commemorate the 150th birthday of the United States Declaration of Independence. During World War II she served as relief flagship for the Atlantic Fleet and flagship of Battleship group 5. Finally decommissioned by the U.S. Navy after the war, she was placed "in ordinary" at Boston until her dilapidated hull was donated to a Baltimore non-profit foundation in 1955. The navy delivered 'Constellation' at Baltimore in a floating drydock.

In the 1960's and 1970's she 'was 'restored' to resemble the frigate 'Constellation' of 1797. Like 'Constitution' this ship was one of the first six frigates of the United States Navy. She was broken up in 1855, the same year that the large sloop 'Constellation' was built. Probably for reasons of sentiment some parts of the old frigate might have been included in the structure of the new sloop.
In later years, the disguise of the sloop 'Constellation, berthed in Baltimore's Inner Harbor during 1968, led to confusion and dispute about her identity. Actually, discussion didn't completely cease to this day.

New attention for the ship was aroused with the revitalization of Baltimore's Inner Harbor in the late 1970's. The permitted maximum height of the new-built pavillons at Harborplace was even limited to the height of her jib boom. Since then some seven milion people have visited 'Constellation' until 1994 when she was closed to the public. A Navy survey in the same year had revealed that most of the frames to which the planks of her hull were attached were dry rotted. Furthermore she suffered from severe hogging and poor watertight integrity. Her condition even made it necessary to remove her rigging the same year. An initiative from the mayor of Baltimore resulted in the installation of a renewed and renamed 'Constellation Foundation, Inc.', charged with the assignment to save the ship and restore her.

The execution of the restoration plan of approximately nine million dollars was started in december 1996 in a disused drydock at Fort McHenry Shipyard, Baltimore. The dismantling of the ship began and the hogging of the keel was gently removed. The restoration replaced the ship's outer planking with a laminated wooden shell constructed of Douglas Fir and epoxy glue. This process, known as 'cold molding', prevents replacing all the original frames and thus saves a lot of money. Even then most of the frame futtocks above the waterline had to be replaced. In August 1998 the restored hull of 'Constellation' was floated again and the ship has returned to her berth in July 1999. 'Constellation' is also declared a National Historic Landmark.

Jylland - Denmark

'Jylland' was the last ship in the Danish navy to be built in oak. Her keel was layed down in the Royal Dockyard Nyholm at Copenhagen in 1857 where she was launched in 1860 and commisioned in 1862 . She was given two horizontal low-pressure engines, built by Baumgarten and Wain in Copenhagen. They were the first steam engines built in Denmark for a large ship. A large screw housing was installed for the raised screw when the ship was to proceed under its own sails. The ship's funnel could be lowered.

During her long active naval career, that ended in 1887, 'Jylland' undertook eightteen voyages in the North and Baltic Seas, the Atlantic, the Mediterranean and to the West Indies and South America. In the Battle of Heligoland in 1864, the Danish North Sea squadron, consisting of the screw frigates 'Jylland' and 'Niels Juel' and the screw corvette 'Hjemdal', gained victory over a Austro-Prussian squadron. In 1874 'Jylland' was refitted to accommodate the Danish king Christian IX who used her as royal yacht during his visits to Iceland (1874) and St. Petersburg, Russia (1876). After 1887 'Jylland' was used as a stationary receiving- and schoolship until 1892 when she was converted to become a depotship. The engines and screw were now taken out. In 1908 'Jylland' was removed from navy statistics and sold for scrap but then repurchased to be fitted as floating National Exhibition. In this new role she received the somewhat light masts, rigging and funnel of the discarded corvette 'Dagmar'. Until 1912 she was towed to various ports for exhibition purposes. Subsequently she was purchased by a rich civilian who took her to Juelsminde. During the first World War she was back in the military role as a Radio telegraph school. When her owner died in 1925, 'Jylland' was towed to Copenhagen and handed over to the 'Committee for the Preservation of the Frigate Jylland'.

By courtesy of a private cooperation, supported by the Danish government since 1934, 'Jylland' was kept afloat and even received new masts and riggings in the late 1930's. Caused by human error and while serving as children's holiday-hotelship in Copenhagen she sank in 1947. Due to suspection of her timbers to be rotted, the accident revived plans for scrapping 'Jylland'. Fortunately new preservation-initiatives prevented the execution of these plans, supported by examinations that confirmed the relatively good condition of her hull. In 1960 the roofed hull of 'Jylland' was moved to Ebeltoft where she was opened to the public. Since then plans were made and funds raised for an extensive restoration.

In 1983 a new exhibition drydock was dug with the ship placed in it during 1984. After removing ballast of 300 tons of rocks, the water in the dock was gradually pumped out and the ship's keel straightenend in the next year. This was crucial to the survival of 'Jylland' because the diagonal frames and - in later life - the ballast had not stopped her hull from severe hogging after more then hundred years in the water. The extensive (110 million Danish kroner) restoration of the hull, that started in 1989, comprised the replacement of some 60% of her timbers. The beautifully restored frigate was inaugurated in 1994.

Restoration and display

Some preserved 19th century naval ships, like the wooden wall 'Victory' (1765), the sail frigate 'Constitution' (1797) and the steam cruiser 'Aurora' (1900) are closely linked to major events of national importance. Their preservation has been and still is a matter of public interest and national pride.
Other ones however, for instance the important steam and sail ironclad battleship 'Warrior' (1860) and the Dutch pair of sea-going monitors 'Buffel' (1868) and 'Schorpioen' (1868), have survived more or less by accident. In most cases, courtesy of caring individuals with insight of their potentials, their remaining hulls were just in time saved from the breakers. Some of these initiatives may have been inspired by the much regretted fate of 'Implacable'.

By origin 'Implacable' was the French battleship 'Duguay-Trouin', built in 1797 and a participant in the Battle off Trafalgar. A few weeks after Trafalgar she was captured by the British navy who renamed her. 'Implacable' formed part of a British maritime expedition, that was sent to the Baltic Sea in 1808 in response to the 1807 pact between the French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte and the Russian Czar Alexander I. Kronstadt (near sint Petersburg, Russia) was blockaded and there were encounters with the Russian Imperial Navy. During one of these occasions, the Russian 74-guns battleship 'Sevelod' was taken by 'Implacable'.
In December 1949 (!) the British Royal Navy scuttled 'Implacable' ceremonialy in the Atlantic Ocean. Only the figurehead and the stern carvings are preserved and now on display in the British National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.

All surviving 19th century naval ships as we know them today have in common, that their futures are to be secured with the proceeds of interested visitors. For this reason their display in a proper and attractive environment is a basic condition to fulfil. A concentration of historic ships is a further enrichment to visitors. But most of all, a family-directed policy of displaying with much entertainment involved, seems to be vital.

Old and obsolete dockyards, usually suitable industrial museum-sites themselves, are purpose-shaped for the display of historic ships. Fortunately some very fine examples of preserved historic ships in historic dockyards are within one's reach. An even amazing example, although out of the scope of this article, is Isambard Brunel's spectacular atlantic passenger liner SS 'Great Britain', brought to Great Britain from the Falklands for restoration and display in the same Bristol drydock where she was originally built in 1843. In a way, 'Great Britain' is a survivor of the Crimean War, because she was requisitioned for trooping in 1855-6.

A homebase to 19th century naval ships is provided by at least four historic naval dockyards in the United States, Great Britain and The Netherlands. The American and British dockyards have already been developed to attract visitors. The Dutch wharf is to be reshaped into a maritime theme park.

The American Charlestown Navy Yard, deep within Boston Harbor, offers a home and shelter to the Boston-built sail-frigate 'Constitution' (1799). Charlestown was one of six federal yards established in 1800-1801 to build, outfit, repair and supply naval vessels. The establishment of the yard was part of a program to build and maintain a standing navy for The United States. In 1974, the year of its closing, some 30 acres of the historic yard were set aside as a living museum of the navy's activities in the Boston area . Amongst other attractions there is a museum in the dockyard, dedicated to 'Constitution'. The World War II destroyer 'Cassin Young' is also permanently berthed at the dockyard. The recent overhaul of 'Constitution' was performed in one of the old drydocks of Charlestown.

Portsmouth established the first royal dockyard in Great Britain in 1496 and it became the largest one of six British home yards. During many centuries it was of primary importance as a centrally located operational fleet base. At Portsmouth the famous wooden wall 'Victory' (1765) is kept in no. 2 drydock where she is open to the public since 1928. Since 1987 the restored ironclad battleship 'Warrior' (1860) is moored in the near vicinity. Another important inhabitant is the salvaged wreck of the ship of the line 'Mary Rose', dating back to 1509. In 1984 Portsmouth ceased to be a royal dockyard and was degraded to be the Fleet Maintenance and Repair Organisation. Portsmouth dockyard has a long tradition of opening its gate to the public and is also the home of the Naval Museum, founded in 1911 as the Dockyard Museum. Since 1985 the Portsmouth Naval Base Property Trust aims to preserve the historic buildings and docks.

The creation of Chatham dockyard about 1570 was the outcome of the custom to moore large numbers of warships in the river Medway. Its importance rapidly increased in the 17th century during the Anglo-Dutch wars. Eventually it became the third largest dockyard in Great Britain. Chatham closed in 1984 but 80 out of its 400 acres with over a hundred buildings and structures became a museum site under the care of the Chatham Historic Dockyard Trust. The steam and sail sloop 'Gannet' (1878) is being restored in one of the old drydocks of what is now called 'Chatham Historic Dockyard'.

The Dutch 'wharf te Willemsoord', the Royal Netherlands Naval Maintenance Facilities, has its origin in 1822 when it was handed over to the navy. It is the last remaining of once eight naval dockyards in The Netherlands. The old establisment at Den Helder was left for a brand new shipyard in 1993 and now offers opportunities to show the restoration of the steam and sail sloop 'Bonaire' (1877) and to secure the future exploitation of the ironclad monitor 'Schorpioen' (1868). The ships are to become eyecatchers in a proposed maritime theme park, to be situated in the establishment. Some of the buildings in the old wharf already house the Naval Museum, which also exploits 'Schorpioen' in addition to some 20th century historic naval vessels.

Besides old dockyards there are of course other 'second best' options, that have proven to be well suited environments for displaying and maintaining 19th century naval ships. The preservation records of the surviving wooden ships from the 1800-1860 era give an insight in some of these options.

Appendix: Tables of surviving seagoing naval ships 1800 - 1860*

Timeline	Liners	Frigate	Sloops	Brigs	Paddlers
1765	Victory
1797		Constitution
1813 / 1913				Niagara
1817		Trincomalee
1824		Unicorn
1843		D. Fernando II e Gloria
1850 / 1987					Soembing
1855			Constellation
1860		Jylland

 

* There are also projects in the United States, aiming to build replicas of the British corvette HMS 'Detroit' (originally built in 1813 and serving as the British flagship during the battle of Lake Erie; lost due to neglect after 1841) and the American sloop-of-war USS 'Portsmouth' (launched in 1843 and finally sold to the breakers in 1915). A project at Stockholm to build a brig, using the drawings of the Swedish naval brig 'Gladan' (1857-1924), makes good progress.

Ships Particulars

	Displacement	Dimensions (Length; Beam)	Main armament (guns and carronades)
Victory	3500 tons	226,6 ft. / 69 m.; 51,10 ft. / 16 m.	1805: 30 * 32 pdr.; 28 * 24 pdr.; 44 * 12 pdr.; 2 * 68 pdr.carr..
Constitution	2200 tons	175 ft. / 53,34 m.; 43,5 ft./14 m.	1812: 32 * 24 pdr.; 22 * 32 pdr.carr; 1 * 18 pdr..
Niagara	227.6 tons	110,8 ft. / 33,5 m; 30,6 ft. / 8,80 m.	1813: 2 * 12 pdr.; 18 * 32 pdr.carr..
Trincomalee	1447 tons	180 ft. / 54,86 m.; 40,25 ft. / 12,27 m..	1852: 14 * 43 pdr.; 10 * 8"; 1 * 10".
Unicorn	1077 tons	166 ft / 50,60 m.; 39,92 ft. / 12,10 m..	None
D. Fernando II e Gloria	1849.16 tons	160 ft. / 48,77 m.; 42 ft. / 12,8 m.	1998: 28 * 18 pdr.; 20 * 32 pdr. carr..
Soembing	781 tons	147,63 ft. / 45 m.; 26,90 ft. / 8,20 m..	1852: 3 * 30 pdr.; 1 * 60 pdr..
Constellation	1400 tons	176 ft. / 53,64 m.; 41,75 ft. /12,73 m	1854: 16 * 8''; 4 * 32 pdr.; 2 * 10".
Jylland	2450 tons	210,33 ft. / 64,1 m.; 43 ft. / 13,11 m	1861: 44 * 30 pdr.; 1 * 18 pdr.carr.; 1 * 12 pdr.carr..

 Addresses, Links and Locations

	Addresses	Locations
Victory	The Commanding Officer, HMS Victory HM Naval Base, Portsmouth, Hants. Great Britain	Portsmouth Naval Base, Portsmouth - Great Britain
Constitution	USS Constitution Charlestown Navy Yard Boston, Massachusetts 02129 -1797 (617) 242-5670 United States of America	Charlestown Navy Yard Boston - United States of America
Niagara	United States Brig Niagara Foot of Holland Street Erie, Pennsylvania (814) 871-4596 United States of America	Holland street, Erie - United States of America
Trincomalee	HMS Trincomalee Trust Jackson Dock Hartlepool Teeside TS4 0SQ Great Britain	Hartlepool Historic Quay, Maritime Ave., Hartlepool Marina Hartlepool - Great Britain
Unicorn	The frigate Unicorn The Unicorn Preservation Society Victoria Dock Dundee DD1 3JA Scotland Great Britain	Victoria Dock, Dundee - Scotland, Great Britain
D. Fernando II e Gloria	Commissao Executiva para a Recuperacao da Fragata D.Fernando II e Gloria Praca do Municipio 1188 Lisboa Portugal	Doca de Alcantara Lisbon - Portugal
Soembing/ Kanko Maru	Huis Ten Bosch co. Ltd. 1-1. Huis Ten Bosch Cho Sasebo City, Nagasaki Prefecture 859-3292 Japan	Harbor of Huis Ten Bosch Resort and Theme Park Omura Bay - Japan
Constellation	Constellation Foundation. Inc. Pier 1, 301 East Pratt Street, Baltimore MD 21202-3134 (410) 539-1797 United States of America	Inner Harbor, Baltimore - United States of America
Jylland	Fregatten Jylland Strandvejen 4, 8400 Ebeltoft Denmark	Strandvejen, Ebeltoft - Denmark

 

References

19th century international politics :

Mahan A.T., 'The influence of Sea Power upon history 1660-1783', 1890
Reader's Digest, 'When, where, why & how it happened', 1995
Volkskrant, 'De terugkeer van Midden-Europa', 1994
Winkler Prins, 'De Franse revolutie en de negentiende eeuw', 1976
Wolters-Noordhoff, 'Geillustreerde bosatlas van de wereldgeschiedenis', 1984
Wood A., 'Europe 1815 to 1945', 1978

Shipbuilding and naval history :

Archibald E.H.H., 'The Fighting Ship in the Royal Navy 897-1984', 1984
Backer J. (ed.), 'Maler der See', 1980
Balkwill R., 'Trafalgar', 1993
Bosscher Ph. M., 'Vlootvoogden en zeeslagen', 1985
Brown D.K., 'Before the ironclad', 1990
Brown D.K., 'Warrior to Dreadnought', 1997
Dijk van A., 'Voor Pampus', 1987
Dixon C., 'Ships of the Victorian Navy', 1987
Gardiner R. (ed.), 'Steam, steel & shellfire, 1992
Greene J. / Massignani A., 'Ironclads at war', 1998
Greven H.J., 'Gedeckte korvette Elisabeth', 1991
Hansen H.J., The Ships of the German Fleets 1848-1945', 1973
Helders Marinemuseum, 'Unsere Zukunft liegt auf dem wasser', 1998
Hough R., 'A history of fighting ships', 1975
Howard F., 'Segel-Kriegsschiffe 1400-1860', 1996
Jane F.T.(ed.), 'The War in The Far East', in 'Jane's Fighting Ships 1905/6', 1905
Lemmers A., 'Techniek op schaal', 1996
Lloyd C., 'Sea Fights under sail'
Lyon D., 'Steam, steel and torpedoes - the warship in the 19th century', 1980
Macintyre D. / Bathe B.W., 'Man-Of-War',1969
Masson Ph. / Battesti M., 'La revolution maritime du IXXe siecle', 1988
Mordal J., 'Twenty-five centuries of sea warfare', 1959
Munday J., 'Naval Cannon', 1987
Oosten van F.C., 'Schepen onder stoom',1972
Potter E.B., 'Illustrated History of the United States Navy', 1971
Preston A., 'History of the Royal Navy', 1983
Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, 'Techniek in schoonheid', 1995
Treue W., 'Der Krimkrieg und seine Bedeutung …….der modernen flotten', 1980
Wideman J.C., 'Civil War Chronicles, Naval Warfare', 1997

Surviving ships :

Acda G.M.W., 'Schroeffregat Jylland', Blauwe Wimpel augustus 1987
Boudreau, G.P., 'Saving Constellation', Wooden Boat 147 April 1999
Bowhay D., 'Nelson's Victory', Ships monthly october 1980
Branigan D., 'Huascar'
Brouwer N.J., 'International Register of Historic Ships', 1985
Burgeler van G.J., 'Schroefstoomschip Bonaire', Blauwe Wimpel april 1989
Dijstelbloem I., 'Schorpioen ramt door', Alle Hens december 1994
Dordrechts museum, 'Kaiyo-Maru', 1979
Dulake R. / Robinson I., 'HMS Warrior, Britain's first ironclad', 1987
Elsegood R., 'The Cerberus Story', Modern Boating may 1979
Gardiner R. (ed.), 'Conway's all the world's fighting ships 1860-1905', 1979
Gardiner R. (ed.), 'Conway's all the world's fighting ships 1922-1946', 1980
Gibbons T., 'The complete encyclopedia of battleships and battlecruisers'
The Greywell Press, 'S.S. Great Britain', 1980
Heal V., 'Britain's Maritime Heritage', 1988
Heyden N. van de, 'Een rottende legende', Alle Hens augustus 1994
Historic Naval Ships association, 'Historic Naval Ships Visitors' Guide', 1995
Kure B., 'Fregatten Jylland Guide '99', 1999
Lyon H., 'The Encyclopedia of the World's Warships'
Manen van E., 'Museumschip Buffel'
McKee A., 'A heritage of ships, a regional guide',
Oudendorp H., 'Troefkaart in Themapark', Alle Hens juni 1998
Pitkin Guide, 'HMS Trincomalee', 1994
Pitkin Guide, 'HMS Warrior', 1991
Royal Naval Museum Trading Company, 'HMS Victory', 1994
Royal Naval Submarine Museum, 'Holland I'
Roos D., 'Ramschip Schorpioen'
Schauffelen O., 'De laatste grote zeilschepen', 1972
Steen Steensen R., 'Fregatten Jylland', 1965
Stewart W.R., 'The guns of the frigate Unicorn', 1978
Vermeulen A.J., 'Schepen van de Koninklijke Marine en .... 1814-1962', 1962
Vries D.J., 'Jaargenoten van 1860', Maritiem Gezien nummer 5 1985
Wimmers H.J., 'Het Museumschip Buffel', 1980
Winton J., 'Warrior, the first and the last', 1987

Naval Shipyards :

Bakker M., 'Herstelplaats voor 's Lands vloot', 1993
Bosscher Ph. M., 'Marinegebouwen', 1978
Chatham Historic Dockyard Trust, 'The Historic Dockyard', 1997
Den Helder, 'Masterplan Oude Rijkswerf Willemsoord', 1998
MacDougall Ph., 'Royal Dockyards', 1989
Meer de S., 's Lands zeemagazijn', 1994
Official National Park Handbook 152, 'Charlestown Navy Yard', 1995
Portsmouth Naval Base Property Trust, 'Portsmouth Historic Dockyard', 1992
Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, 'De physique Existentie….. Jan Blanken 1755-1838', 1987
Warner O., 'Portsmouth and The Royal Navy', 1974

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