1.1            OFFICE ORGANISATION

 

The layout of an office should reflect the ideals and needs of the organisation. For example, if teamwork is an important part of the organisation, the layout will need to encourage this by providing areas where teams can work together.

 

In particular, it should reflect how work is organised and exactly what work needs to be done. Is there a complex departmental structure with each manager having his or her own separate responsibility? Is the work largely confidential? Does it require specialised equipment?

 

Traditionally, offices were cellular, ie separate medium-sized rooms, with one or perhaps two workers in each. Often, each office provided supporting services for a member of the management staff. There are a number of advantages to this type of layout.

 

·        Each office is quiet so there are no distractions to reduce concentration.

·        Each office is private and secure. It is easy to carry out confidential tasks. The office can be locked if there is no one in it.

·        The staff can adapt the office to meet their particular needs; it becomes their own private space. Usually, they will look after and “protect” this.

 

However, cellular offices are expensive to build (think of all the dividing walls!) and do not use space very efficiently. Once a group of cellular offices have been built, it is difficult to change the overall layout, as this will mean knocking down the dividing walls. The staff can become rather isolated and out of touch with each other.

 

In recent years, there has been an increasing move towards open plan offices. These are large, open rooms where many people work. They are cheaper to provide than a number of cellular offices. Workers can sit in teams often at blocks of desks. The working area may be sub­divided by moveable screens.

 

Sometimes organisations change to open plan offices when they re-organise their management structure. Today, this often means cutting down on the number of managers and setting up teams of staff. These are groups of workers who together are responsible for a particular business activity, eg the administration of sales accounts. Once a team has been set up, it is clearly a good idea for them to be together. Teams also make it easier to build up a feeling of corporate identity. The staff become much more aware of each other and of the organisation’s expectations of them.

 

However, open plan offices do have disadvantages.

 

• They are noisy and this can reduce concentration and therefore work output. There are also likely to be many other distractions, eg people passing by.
• There is a lack of privacy and it is difficult to carry out confidential tasks.
• Workers may no longer feel they “own” their own workspace, so it may become more difficult to keep work areas tidy and safe.

 

One of the most recent developments in office organisation is “hot desking”. The rapid growth of computer communications means that it is now possible for managers also to work at home. They will only visit the office from time to time and will not need a desk of their own there. Instead, the organisation will provide a number of work stations which will be available for any “home worker” to use. These are the “hot desks”.

 

 

1.2       THE INFLUENCE OF THE WORKING ENVIRONMENT

 

People work for a variety of different reasons, not simply for money! A great deal of research has been carried out to find out what are the reasons. In general, people will always act to try to meet their needs or wants. They behave in certain ways because the resulting “rewards” allow those needs or wants to be met. So what needs or wants are being met by work? Physical needs, such as the need for food, are met by giving people money. However, once people have enough money to be comfortable, just paying them more money does not always get them to work harder or produce a better product (see Section 2.5; Remuneration). Whether or not piece rates and targets are effective may depend upon other factors.

 

People expect a job to give them a range of other rewards. If this does not happen, an employee is likely to leave in order to find something better. The working conditions are almost as important as pay. At the very least, the Health and Safety at Work Act, should ensure that physical conditions are safe (see Section 1.4). However, employees increasingly also want their working environment to be pleasant. This will partly depend upon the way in which the office is organised (see Section 1.1). Finally, employees will also want to be able to use a variety of facilities eg rest areas, dining areas. Indeed, the Health and Safety at Work Act, states that there should be reasonable welfare facilities.

 

The amount of mental stress that “comes with” the job also affects employees’ attitudes. This is partly related to the degree to which staff are first trained and then supported in their job roles. Employees expect to be properly trained (see Section 2.4) and equipped to carry out a task and then to be allowed to get on and do it without excessive supervision or distraction (see Section 1.1).

 

The factors outlined above will not always by themselves produce more or better work. People want their efforts to be recognised by others. Recognition should mean that they are given greater responsibility and perhaps promotion. They need to feel a sense of achievement; work tasks should be challenging though not impossible. The job should make people feel good about what they do.

 

 

1.3            ERGONOMICS

 

Ergonomics is the science of designing equipment and working environments so that they are comfortable and safe and that they ensure maximum efficiency. Problems can often be caused if people have to keep carrying out the same task hour after hour, such as using a keyboard. One major difficulty that may result from constantly using a keyboard is repetitive strain injury (RSI). This results in numbness, pain and tingling in the fingers. In general, there are a number of important guidelines.

 

• It is very important to sit so that arms, wrists and fingers are relaxed and supported. Your wrists should be straight and higher than your fingers. This means that the height of the chair is important, so the seat height should be adjustable.
• Another possible problem is back pain. The chair back should be adjustable to allow it to support your back so that it is comfortable to sit upright.
• The monitor screen should not emit glare or have reflections in it. This means that overhead lights should have diffusers so that no direct light shines onto the monitor.
• The monitor should be adjusted so that it is angled towards your face so that it is comfortable to look at what you are doing.
• Your feet also need to be supported either flat on the floor or on a footrest.
• There should be space under the table to easily change the position of your legs.

 

 

1.4            HEALTH AND SAFETY

 

Health and safety in the workplace are regulated by the Health and Safety at Work Act, 1974. Under the Act, every employer has a duty to ensure the health, safety and welfare of their employees, as far as it is reasonably possible. When deciding what is reasonably possible, an employer must balance the risk of an injury against the cost (in money, time, etc) of guarding against that risk. However, employees are also expected to act safely.

 

In particular, employers must carry out the following activities:

 

• make sure all equipment is safe;
• avoid risks in handling, storing and moving articles;
• provide information and training in health and safety;
• provide safe ways of entering and leaving the building;
• provide welfare facilities, see Section 1.2.

 

This act was re-enforced by the Health and Safety at Work Regulations, 1992. Under these regulations, employers must carry out a wide range of duties in order to protect the health and safety of their employees. These further responsibilities include the following.

 

• Assess health and safety risks and carry out measures to reduce or prevent any problems that are identified.
• Select equipment that is safe to use and make sure it is properly maintained.
• Reduce the risk of injuries resulting from handling loads.
• Make sure that the working environment is safe. Temperatures should be comfortable to work in, work areas properly ventilated and there should be enough lighting.
• Make sure that the building is safe, eg by marking steps, ensuring that windows and doors can be safely opened and closed, that floors are not slippery, there are no tripping hazards and that safe walkways are marked.
• Provide amenities such as toilets, eating facilities, washing facilities and seating and rest areas.

 

Particular regulations apply to workers who use display screens, eg computer monitors, for an important part of their normal work. These are the Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations.

• Risks must be identified and their importance assessed. Risks could include muscular problems, eye fatigue and mental stress. Reasonable efforts then have to be made to reduce the risk of the problems identified.
• Workstations in general should meet minimum standards. There are specific standards for display screens, keyboards, desks and chairs, see Section 1.3.
• Working periods should be planned so that there are regular breaks.
• Display screen workers are entitled to eye tests.

 

 

1.5       THE IMPORTANCE OF ACCURACY IN THE PREPARATION, STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL OF INFORMATION

 

It is essential that all the information in a document is correct. Notices, letters, etc that are inaccurate will, at the very least, present a bad image of the business to its employees, customers or suppliers. However, they can also result in mistakes that cost organisations money or result in legal action. There are many possible examples. Incorrect operating instructions might result in valuable computer data being lost. The financial information in a business’s annual report must be prepared in line with the correct accounting rules. The information that is given to a customer will form the basis of the contract of sale. If a mistake is made, eg the goods are not correctly described, the business has broken the law. In these situations a lot of care may have to be taken to make sure that the actual wording communicates the correct meaning exactly and cannot be interpreted in any other way.

 

Sometimes it will not be enough for a document to be factually accurate. It is important for letters, reports, etc. and other external communications to be grammatically accurate with correct spelling. Internal messages do not need to be particularly well presented as long as they are legible. However, a business letter to a valued customer will have to be perfect in all ways.

 

In the past, when business documents were commonly handwritten or typed this could be a problem. Some documents could go through a series of re-writes (drafts) until their layout and style was perfect and there were no mistakes. This was a complicated task that took a long time. Now, the increasing use of information technology has meant that documents are usually word-processed. All that is needed to re-draft a letter is the use of a keyboard and the “Edit” commands!

 

For many businesses, the computer revolution has also completely changed the way in which information is stored. Traditionally, letters and other documents were stored away in filing cabinets. Today, most internal documents are generated by computer and can be stored on disk, data cartridge, etc. (However, much material from outside will be in paper form and need to be stored in the traditional way.)

 

However, the problem of locating and retrieving stored documents has not changed. It is still essential that documents are accurately stored. A document that is not stored in the right place may not be found when it is needed. There will have been little point in storing it in the first place. A business will generate many thousands of documents in a year, any one of which may need to be referred to again in the future. This is only possible if each one is referenced in some way. Usually, every document about a particular subject, eg a particular customer, activity or project, is grouped together in a paper or card file or box. Within this file documents are often numbered, perhaps in date order. The files themselves may be kept in alphabetical or date order.

 

If documents are being stored on disk, separate directories can be set up to store a particular group of documents. The documents will be stored as files on a disk and need not exist on paper at all.

 

 

1.6       THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SECURITY OF DATA

 

One of the advantages of the electronic storage of data is that it is much easier to store a document on disk, partly because this takes up hardly any space. It is then easy to find and access the data. However, unless security measures are taken, anyone can do this. Another advantage is that huge amounts of data can be stored, but who is to say how this has been collected and whether it is accurate? It would be quite possible for information to be collected about any one of us without our knowledge.

 

Access to data can be controlled in a number of ways. Probably the commonest way is by the use of passwords. Often this is linked to a system which classifies the stored data into groups depending upon how many people are going to be allowed to see it. The most sensitive information, eg personnel records, is given the highest security rating and can only be seen by a few people. All the users can see the less sensitive information. Rather than keying in a password, users may gain access to the system by means of an identity card which has to swiped through a reader.

 

Data can also be protected by physical means using locks on the computer which stop it working. It is also important for floppy disks to be securely locked away so that they cannot be stolen.

 

The collection and use of personal data is controlled by the Data Protection Act. This covers all data stored on computer that concerns living individuals. The act does not include data that is only used either for calculating pay or pensions or for recording payments. For example, neither an employer’s computer records of the hours worked by an employee nor a credit card company’s customer records would be covered. Also, any information which has to be provided by law, eg personal data in the electoral register, is not included.

 

Under the terms of the Act, the name of every organisation that uses personal data must be on a national register. This is administered by the Data Protection Registrar. Users must:

 

• describe the data they hold;
• explain why the data is needed;
• identify the sources of the data;
• identify any organisation to which they are likely to show the data.

 

Anyone can inspect the register.

 

• Data must be obtained legally.
• Data can be used only for the purposes explained in the register.
• Data can be shown only to those organisations identified in the register.
• Data must be accurate and up to date.
• Data can be stored only as long as it is needed for the registered purpose.
• Data must be kept secure.

 

Subjects must have access to their data and have a right to correct any mistakes.

 

Sometimes data are lost when there is a computer failure or a power cut. It can be very expensive and time-consuming to replace the data which is lost. Computer users guard against this by backing up their data: regularly taking an extra copy of the data on a disk. Large files are backed up overnight onto magnetic tape. Organisations who use very valuable data store their backups in a separate building, just in case one building burns down.

 

Data can also be damaged by computer viruses. A virus is a computer programme which copies itself onto files and damages the data. Viruses can remain hidden in a computer system, triggered by a date or a certain combination of keys being pressed. The worst viruses can destroy the contents of a hard disk. They are passed from one computer to another, by using floppy disks which contain viruses or by downloading infected files from the Internet. Organisations can protect their systems from viruses by preventing the use of unauthorised floppy disks, and by installing anti-virus software on their computers so that each time they are switched on, the disk is checked for viruses (disinfected).

INTRODUCTION

 

The employees of a business are amongst its most valuable resources: sometimes the most valuable resource. The task of building up an effective work force is a very important business activity.

 

There is often a continuous turnover of employees in all but the smallest organisations. Vacancies may result from a number of causes. People may have left or been promoted. The organisation may be expanding and need extra workers.

 

Large businesses will attempt to plan how many employees and what skills will be needed in the future. Most other businesses will carry out this activity from time to time, eg when a new product is being developed. However, it would be a mistake for any business to take on new employees without considering how much and what type of work they will be expected to carry out. These decisions will in turn affect how new employees are paid.

 

The process of appointing new staff will involve a number of activities:

 

• recruitment;
• selection (including interviewing);
• training.

 

All actions which directly affect employees must meet the requirements of the Sex Discrimination Acts of 1975 and 1986 and the Race Relations Act of 1976. These make it illegal either to favour or disriminate against people of a particular sex, colour, race, ethnic or national origin. The law allows certain exceptions such as posts in a single sex establishment, eg a girls’ boarding school. The 1970 Equal Pay Act must be observed. This states that men and women must receive equal payment for doing broadly similar work. The Disability Discrimination Act 1996 makes it illegal to discriminate against people with a physical or mental disability which does not prevent them from doing the job. It does not apply to organisations with fewer than fifteen employees.

 

 

2.1            RECRUITMENT

 

Recruitment is the process of obtaining a number of suitable applicants for a job vacancy. Once a job vacancy has been identified, the first task is to draw up a detailed description of what the person will be expected to do. This is called a job description.

 

Now the knowledge, skills and attitudes the vacancy demands can be identified. This is done by drawing up a person specification. When this has been done, the next task is to attract suitable applicants.

 

• the job title;
• where it is located (including the department);
• the purpose of the job;
• the activities that make up the job;
• its relationship to other jobs in the organisation.

 

A person specification will include:

 

• physical characteristics, eg minimum height;
• experience or qualifications, eg good GCSEs in Mathematics and English Language;
• personality characteristics, eg able to get on well with other people.

 

A business can then go ahead and recruit, either internally from the existing employees, or externally.

 

Internal applicants can be attracted by advertising posts on notice boards or in in-house magazines. Filling vacancies internally has a number of advantages, eg it is quicker and cheaper, and motivates the work force. However, especially in small or medium-sized organisations, the pool of possible applicants may be too small to guarantee a good choice of suitable candidates.

 

One of the most popular external methods of recruitment is advertising in newspapers or magazines. A recruitment advertisement is a short description of the post, partly drawn from the person and job specifications. Its contents will include:

 

• the job title;
• a description of the job;
• a description of the employer;
• the qualities, skills, experience needed;
• instructions on how to apply.

 

It is important that vacancies are advertised where they will be seen by the most suitable candidates. Advertisements for a post in a national business should be displayed in national newspapers, or specialist magazines or trade journals, to attract a national pool of applicants. However, advertisements must also be cost-effective. It would be a waste of money to advertise a temporary, unskilled post in the same way. It would be far better to use a local newspaper or a postcard in a shop window.

 

There are two types of organisation which exist mainly to help recruitment:

 

• job centres;
• recruitment agencies.

 

Job centres are run by the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE). They advertise posts on behalf of employers and choose suitable candidates. Job centres are especially important for advertising skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled manual and clerical jobs. They do not charge for their services.

 

Recruitment agencies are privately-owned businesses which specialise in recruitment and selection. People who are looking for work will be interviewed and put on a register. Employers will notify the agency of a vacancy. The agency will then send along a suitable candidate from its register. They aim to make a profit by charging the employer a fee. Employers save time and money on advertising the vacancy and shortlisting. Recruitment agencies supply both temporary and permanent staff.

 

A source of information about jobs for young people is the Careers Service. As well as giving advice and information to students, it also collects the details of local job vacancies and distributes them to local schools and colleges.

 

 

2.2 SELECTION

 

The next step is selection: choosing the best person for the post. This starts with inviting people to apply for the post. There are a number of ways this can be done:

 

• by completing an application form;
• by writing a letter of application;
• by sending a Curriculum Vitae (CV).

 

Application forms are sent out by the organisation, often with further details about the post to be filled. They will normally request the following information from the applicant.

 

• personal details, eg age, address;
• educational history, eg schools attended with dates and qualifications obtained;
• employment history, ie previous posts held;
• interests; it is important to mention any active hobbies, especially if they use skills which are needed for the post.

 

The applicants are often also given the chance to provide further information in support of their application. The application will usually have to be supported by the names of people who will provide references. A reference is meant to be a clear, unbiased statement of an applicant’s abilities, character and experience, usually from previous or current employers.

 

The advantage to the employer of using an application form is that basic information about the applicants is collected in an organised format. The information can easily be compared with that obtained from other candidates, and with the person specificatioh.

 

Writing a letter of application is probably more difficult than completing an application form. The letter should usually begin with an explanation of why you are applying for the post and then go on to cover the topics usually found on an application form. It gives applicants the chance to provide information that could not easily be given on an application form.

 

The applicant’s ability (or inability!) to construct well argued and literate reasons for gaining the post could even provide evidence of their suitability to do the job. However, each candidate may provide information on slightly different topics, making it difficult to compare candidates. Letters may give little information about some of the items on the person specification.

 

A CV is a summary of an applicant’s educational and work life. It is basically a list of experiences and achievements presented without comment. Usually a CV will need to be accompanied by a short letter of application. This will give the reasons why the applicant wants the job and why he or she feels that he/she will be able to do it.

 

 

2.3       THE INTERVIEW

 

An interview is usually the final stage in the selection process. The candidates’ experience and skills will be shown by their application forms, CVs or letters of application. The information from all the candidates is compared. The aim is to produce a short list of perhaps six applicants who best match the person specification. These are the people who will be interviewed.

 

It is very important to organise the process of interviewing very thoroughly, especially if it is for an important post. The future success of the business may depend upon the skills of the successful applicant.

 

The number of people conducting an interview can vary:

 

• a one-to-one interview, where there is one interviewer and one interviewee;
• a panel interview where there are several interviewers, eg a departmental manager and representatives of finance and personnel departments.

 

Increasing the number of interviewers allows each interviewer to ask questions on particular aspects of the post. At the end, the interviewing panel usually meet to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the candidates. Hopefully, as a result, the final decision is less likely to be biased. One problem is that the interviewing process can become too complicated and it may be very difficult to get all the interviewers to agree.

 

It is important to prepare for an interview as thoroughly as possible:

 

• choose a room that is quiet and private;
• arrange a schedule allowing each of the candidates the same amount of time which should be sufficient for them to demonstrate their abilities;
• send clear instructions to candidates;
• carefully check each candidate’s letter of application against the person specification;
• identify the topics for questions (these should arise from the person specifications and the candidate’s details);
• if there is more than one interviewer, be certain who is asking about which topics. Some questions should be asked of all candidates, eg “Why did you apply for this post?”

 

The conduct of the interview is equally important

 

• Welcome each candidate, make them feel at ease.
• Some questions can be asked to get specific information, perhaps on issues arising from the application process. For example, “What did you do in the six months between your first two jobs?”
• However, more open-ended questions will encourage the candidate to talk more freely. For example, “What particular contribution do you think you can make to this organisation?”
• Lastly, the candidate should have the opportunity to ask questions. It is also important to check whether the candidate would still want the job if offered it, before thanking him or her.

 

The successful candidate must then be formally offered the job, usually verbally at first and then in writing. These offers need to be made with care because they can form the basis of a contract of employment. This identifies an employee’s conditions of service, eg rate of pay.

 

The Trade Union Reform and Employment Rights Act 1993 states that all full-time, permanent employees must be given a written statement of their (basic) terms of employment. The employer does not legally have to issue a written contract of employment.

 

 

2.4 IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVE SELECTION

 

The recruitment and selection of employees is a time-consuming and expensive process: a national newspaper advertisement alone could cost several hundred pounds, and added to this are the travelling expenses of the interviewees and the salaries of those doing the selection. It is, therefore, essential that the right people are appointed. If not, it will cost the organisation even more in the long run. If the person appointed turns out to be unable to do the job properly, they may make costly mistakes and will require additional training. Alternatively, they might decide to leave, which would mean that the whole process of recruitment and selection would have to be repeated.

 

 

2.5            TRAINING

 

There are two types of training:

 

• induction;
• teaching job-specific skills.

 

The aim of induction training is to introduce new employees to their workplace andiheir new job. It is not about giving them the skills to do a particular job. In fact, the same induction training programme may be given to a range of new employees.

 

It is likely to provide information about a number of topics:

 

• the organisation of the business, including the names and functions of the departments and the names of their managers;
• the layout of the work place such as the location of different departments, offices, etc;
• workplace systems, eg who is responsible for dealing with particular problems;
• pay and benefits policies, eg sick pay arrangements, bonus schemes;
• welfare and catering services;
• equal opportunities policies;
• Health and Safety policies and procedures, eg evacuation in case of fire;
• data protection policies, eg for payroll details.

 

Good induction schemes are essential. Employees learn what is expected of them, including what to do in emergencies. As a result, they will need to ask fewer questions and will make fewer mistakes. This will increase the efficiency of the business.

 

The business benefits because its employees are more knowledgeable and feel more confident. It is an effective way of communicating the aims of the business to all employees. It can also be an opportunity to develop teams, especially if a group of employees go through the programme together.

 

The alternative to induction training is to rely on the grapevine (gossiping, spreading rumours, etc) to tell newcomers about the business. Though the grapevine will always exist in a business, many of its rumours and “facts” will be not be correct and this spreads confusion and misunderstanding.

 

Skills training is becoming more and more important. Organisations increasingly need people to be ready to learn new skills and cope with new situations. The need for an organised system of training and qualifications has led to the development of NVQs (National Vocational Qualifications) which are based upon standards of competence set by industry. A competence is the ability to carry out a particular job-related activity.

 

Training can be either ‘on-the-job’ or ‘off-the-job’. ‘On-the-job’ training builds up a range of practical skills by staff actually doing the job. ‘Off-the-job’ training often takes place away from the workplace, eg at college. A large organisation may have its own training centres. Training will often be on a day-release basis, eg attending college every Friday. These schemes develop the background knowledge which is often the basis for practical skills.

 

Employees are likely to experience both kinds of training during their working lives. For example, a receptionist could learn how to use the switchboard ‘on-the-job’ by working alongside an experienced employee, but s/he might go on an external training course to be trained ‘off-the-job’ how to deal with difficult customers.

 

A well-trained work force is one of a business’s greatest assets. Training increases motivation which increases output because employees produce more of a better quality product. A well-trained worker will be more skilled and better at solving problems. In turn, this will make the business more effective and better able to compete and meet consumers’ demands for better products. For all of these reasons, a staff development programme is essential for a successful business.

 

A business that does not constantly re-train its workers will soon find that it cannot compete with businesses that do. New technology appears every year, resulting in the constant need for new skills. Training encourages workers to see future changes as an opportunity rather than a problem. The possession of modern skills will improve their own career prospects.

 

 

2.6            REMUNERATION

 

An employee’s remuneration is the complete package of material rewards they gain from their employment. The most important form of remuneration will be their pay, but they might also gain the use of a car, cut-price goods, free medical insurance, etc. These non-monetary rewards are called fringe benefits.

 

There are basically two methods of calculating an employee’s pay:

 

• time based;
• output based.

 

Each method has a number of different varieties.

 

Time rates are based on the number of units of time worked, eg hours, weeks. Hourly rates are most common, eg £5.00 per hour for 30 hours a week as a counter assistant. There is often a basic rate for each hour worked up to an agreed number of hours a week. If more hours are worked, then these are paid at a higher rate, as overtime.

 

The payment of a salary is also related to work over a period of time, though in this case it is a year. An annual salary is agreed which is then usually divided into twelve equal parts. Thus an employee is paid 112 of their annual salary for every month worked. The actual amount paid will usually start with a basic sum. People often then receive additional pay, eg for the number of years worked with the employer, for accepting specific extra responsibilities, for gaining additional qualifications.

 

A salary is a common method of payment in administrative or professional posts where it is difficult to work out the number of hours that will need to be worked or define the output.

 

The simplest output-based wage payment system is a piece rate in a manufacturing business. This is based on the number of times the employee completes a particular task. Piece rates are meant to encourage employees to work hard but may only be suitable if the output is repetitive and simple. The unit of output must be easy to measure without argument.

 

The payment of a commission is in a way a type of piece rate, except that the unit of output is not a product but a sale. The commission will often be a percentage of the value of the sale. Salespersons can be partly paid in commission, so much for every sale. Payment by commission encourages sales and means that staff are paid out of the extra incQme they generate.

 

Another much more modern method of payment, which is also related to output, is performance-related pay. The employee is given a target. The targets can be very simple, eg working a number of days without absence. However, managers can be given more complex targets. For example, a sales manager can be rewarded for increasing the number of active clients, or a headteacher for increasing the number of students on roll. For whatever reason it is given, a bonus will be awarded for reaching a numerical target.

 

Target setting is becoming an increasingly important part of calculating pay. However, it is important that targets are well thought out. If they are too low, they are likely to have little effect. Little extra effort will be needed to reach them. However, targets that are so high that they are unlikely to be met may also have little effect. Worse than this, employees may decide that any more than a minimum effort is pointless as they will not be rewarded.

 

In fact, many people’s pay is made up of a basic pay which is time-related and then a bonus that is linked to output or sales, etc. This bonus is an incentive to reach a target. The basic pay could be based on the number of hours worked or an annual salary.

 

By the Employment Protection Consolidation Act 1978, an employee must receive an itemised pay slip. This will show gross pay (pay before any deductions), net pay (the amount actually “taken home”) and any deductions. The two most important deductions will be income tax and national insurance contributions. Other possible deductions may be contributions to a pension fund or trade union. An example of this is shown below.

 

 

Gross Pay       £2230.00

 

Deductions

Tax    £366.00

National Insurance         £158.00

Pension         £133.00

Total Deductions         £657.00

 

Net Pay       £1573.00

3.1            IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION

 

 

Introduction

 

Communication is the process which enables ideas and information to be passed between people and organisations. Communication in a business can be:

 

• either external;
• or internal.

 

External communications link the business with individuals or organisations outside the business, eg customers. However, the bigger the business is, the more likely it is to need a network for internal communications to link different departments, employees, etc.

 

 

The importance of internal communications

 

Good internal communications are vital. They provide information on a huge range of topics, from a mission statement, stating the organisation’s aims, to a menu listing the dishes available in the staff restaurant.

 

Communications also give instructions on how to carry out all the tasks that make up people’s jobs. Some of these will be complex, eg the details of how to operate a new computer system. Others are simple, eg how to work the coffee machine. However, without these instructions the business could not function. It would be difficult to carry out even the most routine actions.

 

Increasingly, communication is also necessary so that workers can play a bigger part in the business. Workers in teams are expected to work together to organise the production of a good or service and meet targets. This will be impossible unless they are fully informed. For example, workers in a production team will need details of which goods are to be made.

 

Internal communications will play an important part in affecting what the employees feel about the business. Do communications invite them to play an active part or are they just instructions? This will affect their motivation and the amount of loyalty and support they give as a result.

 

It is also equally important to communicate to individual workers how successful they are. This may be done formally through an annual appraisal interview to discuss their progress. At the other extreme, they are legally entitled to a pay slip showing how their take home pay has been calculated!

 

Communications also play a part in measuring the performance of the business. It is important for all those involved in the business to know how well it is doing. At its simplest, “Does it make a profit?”. This calculation will need the details of all sales and purchases to be communicated to the finance department.

 

Up-to-date information will also be essential in planning for the future of the business. Plans are most likely to work if the starting point, “Where are we now?”, is correct. This will require a great deal of accurate information to be communicated. Even when the plan has been put into practice, it will be necessary to continue to collect and communicate information so that it can be constantly up-dated.

 

 

The importance of external communications

 

Sometimes information may have to be communicated by law. For example, at the end of the financial year companies will have to publish a set of annual accounts. These will bring together the financial results of the business over the year.

 

All types of financial communications with other businesses are particularly important. For example, all businesses must communicate with suppliers to purchase goods. The resulting debts have to be paid which will need an instruction to their bank.

 

It is vital that all financial communications are accurate. Organisations must know exactly how much money is coming in so that there will always be money to pay debts when necessary. The business will soon get a bad reputation if it does not pay its debts properly.

 

Communication with customers is an important part of marketing activity. Advertising plays an essential part in letting people know about the product, getting them to take an interest in buying it and then finally actually purchasing it.

 

However, communication with customers continues to be important even after the sale. Any problems must be promptly and effectively dealt with. How this is done will help to decide how the customer views the organisation, “It is the type of business that I would be happy to deal with again?” Do the communications create an impression of a quality business?

 

 

3.2            METHODS OF COMMUNICATION

 

 

INTRODUCTION

 

Traditionally, businesses have communicated:

 

• either verbally, face to face or by telephone;
• or by documents which were either hand written, typed or printed.

 

Candidates should be encouraged to consider the advantages and disadvantages of the various methods of communication.

 

Discussions and meetings

 

The commonest form of communication is talking to people. However, the actual words we use form only part of the message. There are a large number of ways in which people communicate their thoughts, ideas and emotions. What tone of voice do we use: threatening or friendly? What facial gestures go with the words we use: a frown or a smile? In fact non­verbal forms of communication (gestures, body movements) can be more important than what we say.

 

Face-to-face communications range from the casual, a quiet gossip, to the very formal such as an interview. They can take place between two people or may involve a group.

 

A business meeting is an example of a formal group communication. It will usually be chaired by a manager and its members will discuss plans, problems, new ideas, etc. The aim may be just to listen to ideas or perhaps to take decisions.

 

An effective meeting will at the very least need:

 

• an agenda;
• a chairperson.

 

An agenda (an example of a formal document) plays an important part in making sure a meeting is effective. An agenda is a list of the items which will be discussed at the meeting. A copy of the agenda should be sent to everyone attending beforehand. This is so that they can prepare themselves, eg by bringing relevant paperwork. There are certain headings which always appear on an agenda, and others which are specific to one meeting. At the top of the agenda it will state the name of the group that is meeting and the date, time and location of the meeting. This will be followed by a list of the main topics to be discussed at the meeting. Each topic will be an item on the agenda.

 

1. The minutes of the previous meeting

 

If the group has met before, it must first agree that the minutes (ie the record) of the last meeting are accurate It is very important that they are a correct record. They will be checked if there is any future disagreement over what was decided.

 

2. Matters arising from the minutes

 

One of the main activities under this item will be to discuss any business left unfinished at the end of the previous meeting. Often the minutes will include instructions; known as action points, eg letters to be written. These will be checked at a later meeting under this agenda item.

 

3. Reports

 

This will consist of statements from members of the group who have special responsibilities, eg the chairperson.

 

The main part of the agenda will consist of the discussion of a number of issues. Often the discussion will end with a vote on a motion. This is a short statement which identifies exactly what decision is being suggested.

 

5. Any other business (AOB)

 

This item can be used by any member of the meeting to raise any matter related to the work of the group. Usually notice has to be given to the chairperson.

 

6. Date of next meeting

 

It is usual to agree on the date of the next meeting as the last agenda item.

 

The most important person at the meeting will be the chairperson, who carries out a number of tasks:

 

• over-seeing the preparation of the agenda;
• opening the meeting and welcoming the members;
• making sure that there is a correct list of the people present and checking with the secretary to see if there are any apologies for absence from members who cannot attend;
• taking the meeting through the agenda item by item;
• giving each member the opportunity to put their views forward on each item.
• drawing the meeting to a conclusion and making sure that decisions are clearly stated and understood.

 

It is essential to have a record of the meeting, which is provided by the minutes, (see page 20.)

 

 

Video Conferences

 

It is not always possible or practical for a particular group of people to gather together in one place for a meeting. In some circumstances it is more appropriate to hold a video conference. Video conferencing is the use of telephone links to set up television and video networks which allow people in different parts of the country/world to see and talk to one another. This method saves expenses and time taken in travelling to and from meetings.

 

 

The telephone

 

It is clearly not possible to travel to have face-to-face conversations with all people with whom we deal, so the telephone has to be used instead. It is important at the start of a conversation to establish who is calling and what the subject is. It is necessary to be even more careful when dealing either with people outside the business or other organisations.

 

Firms differ in how they deal with external queries (eg from customers) over the telephone. It is sometimes company policy for calls to be passed onto an expert as soon as possible. The person who eventually talks to the caller may either have specialist knowledge or have been specially trained to deal with queries or complaints. On the other hand, some businesses prefer the person who first speaks to the caller to have some knowledge and training.

 

Whatever the policy is, someone will need to be prepared to spend time helping callers. There is usually a company greeting and staff will often offer their name. The next step may be to find out and then use the customer’s name. One way of finishing the call is to summarise the conversation and thank the caller.

 

 

The importance of verbal communication

 

Verbal communications give the people involved the chance of giving an immediate response. This allows them to negotiate, ask questions and put forward ideas. This form of communication is either free or inexpensive. The telephone allows simple worldwide access to other people and organisations.

 

However, there are many problems. It is sometimes essential to have a written record; this is why there must be minutes of a meeting. Another difficulty is that speech is really only like text. Pictures, tables, charts, etc, cannot be communicated.

 

 

Documents

 

 

Business letters

 

A letter is the most accepted way of communicating information to people outside the business or to other organisations. Exact and detailed information can be sent almost anywhere in the world in a relatively secure manner. There is a record of what was “said” which can be stored, together with the resulting reply.

 

It need not require any complex equipment to produce, a pen will do! However, in most businesses letters are produced using computer hardware and word processing software. This has important training and cost implications.

 

Business letters should be written in direct, plain English so, for example, slang is not usually acceptable. The subject of the letter is introduced in the first paragraph which usually also refers back to any previous correspondence either by letter or telephone. Paragraphs should be short, each one communicating a separate part of the overall “message” of the letter.

 

Almost all businesses use their own pre-printed letter heads with th& business name, address and perhaps logo at the top. At the foot there may be further information about the 6usiness. Some businesses have their own house style, ie rules on the exact layout of a letter.

 

The text is normally produced in blocked style. This means that all text will start at the left hand margin. There are no first line indents, eg at the beginning of a new paragraph.

A line space is left between different parts of the letter, eg between the date and the name and address of the addressee (the person to whom the letter is written) and between this and the salutation, eg Dear Ms    Line spaces are also left between paragraphs.

 

The letter should have a closure which identifies the sender of the letter. This will be Yours faithfully, if the salutation was Dear Sir or Madam. If the letter was addressed to someone by name, the closure is Yours sincerely.

 

Great care must be taken to make sure that all factual details are accurate and the grammar and spelling are correct. A spelling checker in a word-processing software package is very useful.

 

 

The minutes of a meeting

 

Like an agenda (see page 20), the minutes will first state the name of the group that is meeting and the date, time and location of the meeting, together with a list of who attended. Next will be a statement that the minutes of the previous meeting (after any corrections) were agreed as “a true record”. They will end with the date of the next meeting.

 

The minutes must be accurate and complete, recording each item on the agenda. However, they include only the most important points. All action points and motions should be recorded together with the results of all votes.

 

 

Memos (memoranda)

 

Whilst business letters can be quite lengthy and are generally used for external communications, memos are often short, preferably simple and used for internal communications.

 

However, as with a business letter, there is a standard layout for memos. The top of the memorandum sheet is usually pre-printed with the headings, ie To, From, Subject, Ref (Reference, usually a letter/number code) and Date. It is particularly important that the subject details are stated as simply and briefly as possible.

 

Memos may be hand written or word processed, addressed to one or a number of people. In the latter case, there will be a circulation list which identifies who is to receive the memo.

 

 

Reports

 

A report is used to communicate detailed information, and can b&anything between one and thousands of pages long. It is divided up into sections, with numbered headings and sub­headings. Each organisation will have its own report format, but a typical structure would include the following:

 

• title;
• name of recipient(s);
• name and department of author;
• date;
• introduction, stating the purpose of the report;
• method, explaining how the information was gathered;
• findings, summarising the results - often further divided into sections;
• recommendations, stating what should be done as a result.

 

 

Messages

 

Most businesses will formally record messages that cannot be directly communicated in person to the recipient, especially telephone messages. Forms can be supplied, pre-printed with headings for the name of the caller, the date and the time, the contents of the message and the name of the person calling or telephoning.

 

 

Notices and signs

 

Notices and signs provide simple information in the form of instructions, reminders or requests to staff or visitors. Such messages usually take the form of public notices, eg health and safety warnings on equipment. It is important to design them to catch people’s attention. They should be simple, consisting of a bold heading followed by a “message” that is brief and clear.

 

 

Newsletters

 

Many organisations produce their own newsletter which is circulated to employees, major customers and suppliers. It can motivate employees to see articles and photographs of themselves, and can inform people about the organisation’s involvement in the community. The production of newsletters is much easier now that cheap, desktop publishing systems are widely available.

 

 

The importance of formal communication by documents

 

Documents offer a number of advantages compared to verbal communication. Most importantly, there is a record which can be copied and stored. This can be checked if there are any doubts or disagreements. A document allows points to be more carefully argued and explained. Information can be presented using a number of tabular and graphical methods, eg charts, tables, diagrams.

 

However, compared to verbal communications, they are inflexible. It is difficult to change what is put on paper. It is much easier to change an idea that is put forward in conversation. Long documents may not be read properly and important information may be buried in unnecessary details.

 

Informal communication takes place wherever two employees talk to each other, eg in the canteen or over the photocopier. Information can be passed very quickly round the organisation by this method, which is known as the grapevine. Harmful and inaccurate rumours can also be spread, usually as a result of a lack of effective formal communication by management.

 

 

3.3 DEVELOPMENTS IN COMMUNICATION

 

In the last twenty years there has been a revolution in communications resulting from advances in:

 

• telecommunications;
• computers.

 

As a result, businesses, especially large ones, increasingly rely on computers and data links to communicate and present information.

 

 

Modern telecommunications

 

In the past, communications away from a home or office telephone were very difficult and inconvenient. This situation has been revolutionised by the mobile telephone and the pager. Whilst the mobile telephone allows for normal voice communications, the pager is more limited in what it provides. The basic pager just tells the owner that there is a telephone message for them. However, message pagers will display a simple message.

 

Similarly, documents no longer have to be sent by post. They can be faxed. The sender’s machine scans a document, a page at a time and then transmits a facsimile of it to the destination, via telephone lines, where a copy is printed out, also a page at a time. This can be used for pictures as well as text.

 

Another important result of the advances in telecommunications and computers has been the development of information services. Early, simple forms 5f this were teletext services offered by BBC and ITV. These consist of pages of information available from a modified television. The service is not interactive.

 

A modern information service gives the user the chance to:

 

• access data from sources around the world;
• communicate with other organisations linked to the service.

 

It is interactive and allows a range of other services, eg the ordering of goods. Providers offer specialist services for businesses, eg financial reports on companies.

 

The growth of telecommunications is partly the result of the use of ISDN links. These transmit information as a digital signal. This gives enough capacity to provide audio-visual services and interactive services, eg video-conferencing. This allows people in different locations both to converse and see each other.

 

 

Computer communications

 

The demands of business have led to the development of a range of facilities. Electronic data interchange (EDI) is the term used to describe the use of computers to communicate information.

 

The result is a computer network which has many advantages for a business. For example, it means that instructions no longer have to be on paper. An order is no longer written down but becomes a communication from one business’s computer to another via a data link.

 

It is possible to link computers together across a geographical area. Networks can be either:

 

• client/server or;
• peer to peer.

 

A client/server network will be based around a single powerful file server which has a hard disk. Work stations or terminals on the network do not have their own hard disk. They depend upon the file server for access to software and user files.

 

A peer-to-peer network is a simple and inexpensive way of connecting a small number of computers. Each work station has its own hard disk drive on which its user’s files are stored. Other users can access these files.

 

Computers can be linked together over both small geographical areas (eg a building) and much larger ones. A network linking together users in a building will form a LAN or local area network. Networks that connect users over hundreds or thousands of miles using the telecommunications network are called WANs or wide area networks.

 

Local area networks have a number of advantages.

• A user can access his/her work from any workstation.
• Individual workstations are relatively cheap, partly because they will not need a hard disk drive.
• It is easy to backup all the data on the network.
• All users can access all the data on the server and use the server to access external sources, eg the internet.
• The network can be used to communicate information between its users.

 

However, networks also have disadvantages.

• Building the network can be expensive, partly because of the need for data links to connect up the computers.
• There may be problems if the server crashes.

 

Today, the internet is perhaps the most well known example of a wide area network. It links together a huge range of people and organisations around the world, eg schools, universities, businesses, libraries.

 

One important service offered through the use of data links is E-mail. This is the communication of text, eg messages, letters and reports, between computer users. Each one of the users involved will need an E-mail address. The document is created using a computer in the normal way. It is then transmitted to its destination where it is stored in the other computer’s mail box. It can then be opened on the screen and read.

There are also a large number of specialised data links operated by large organisations. The Bankers Automated Clearing Service (BACS) is an example of the specialised use of EDI. This system was set up to save money by moving funds between bank accounts electronically by computer.

 

A modem is needed to connect a computer to the telephone system. At first, modems were separate pieces of equipment but they are now often built into computers.

 

The methods of communication that have resulted from the telecommunications and computer revolutions have a number of potential advantages:

 

• They can be fast, simple and much cheaper than the alternatives (a video conference/teleconference involves no travel cost.)
• They avoid work that was often time-consuming and boring, eg completing and administering routine paper work.
• They provide access to a large store of information, eg via the internet.
• It is often simple to obtain a paper record of an electronic communication, eg by printing out a hard copy of an E-mail.

 

However, there are also disadvantages.

 

• A complex computer network will have to be carefully planned and it is easy for a business to make mistakes. This task needs a high level of technological expertise. It is easy to acquire equipment which rapidly becomes out of date.
• It is necessary to spend money on setting up and maintaining the computer network.
• If the system is to be used effectively, existing work routines will need to be changed. Attempting to use the old paper-based systems alongside the new computers is often problematic.
• Staff will need new skills. This will necessitate re-training and new appointments. Generally, fewer workers will be needed. ­
• The speed and ease with which information can be copied and transferred mean that it can be misused. Steps need to be taken to keep data secure.

INTRODUCTION

 

Today computers are widely used within business for a variety of tasks. The following are examples:

 

• preparing documents (letters, reports, etc) using a word processing package;
• creating budgets and other financial documents using spreadsheeting facilities;
• storing information on a variety of topics, eg details of customer accounts, in a data base;
• drawing pictures and diagrams using a drawing package;
• producing leaflets, flyers and reports, etc, using a desk top publishing package.

 

These applications use widely available general (or generic) software. It is also possible to buy software which is produced for a particular type of business, eg a small newsagent, or activity, eg computer aided design. Large businesses often have software written specially for them.

 

 

Types of personal computer

 

Personal computers come in a range of sizes. Some examples are:

 

• palm top;
• notebook;
• desk top or tower.

 

Palm top computers can be held in the palm of your hand. However, they can only cany out basic processing activities. Palm tops are often used as personal organisers to store addresses, etc. The next size up is a notebook, which is small enough to be carried in a small bag. They are used “on the move” in trains, hotel rooms, etc. Notebooks will be expensive but are capable of carrying out the same functions as a desk top computer.

 

The commonest size of computer is the desk top, the size you wilr normally use at school or college. Similar sized computers that are tall, narrow and usually rest on the floor are called tower computers.

 

A computer collects, processes, stores, outputs and communicates information as follows:

 

• data has to be input;
• the data then has to processed and stored;
• finally the resulting information has to presented and communicated.

 

Data can be input in a number of ways, by the use of:

 

• a keyboard;
• a mouse;
• or sometimes a scanner or a camera.

 

A scanner will create an image as a computer file of whatever is scanned: a document, a picture, a diagram, etc. This can then be edited. Electronic cameras take a picture which is stored not as an image on a film, but as an electronic image which can be down-loaded to a computer. This can be copied and pasted into any other file as a graphic image.

 

As well as inputting information into a computer, it is necessary to input commands, eg to create a new file. The commonest ways of doing this are by using:

 

• a keyboard;
• a mouse;
• a tracker ball;
• a touch pad.

 

The earliest computers needed keyboard commands to do this. This used keys that were extra to the traditional typewriter keys, eg Alt, Control, and a number of function keys, Fl, F2, etc. Commands can still be selected using the keyboard.

 

However, most people usually now use a mouse to select commands. Moving the mouse moves a pointer around the screen. This can be pointed at the commands, eg File, Edit, which are displayed on a bar across the top of the screen. Commands are selected by pointing and clicking, using the left-hand mouse button. This action will usually cause a further pull down menu to be displayed.

 

A tracker ball is rather like an up-side down mouse. The ball is usually in a socket on the top of the computer. It can be moved directly by your fingers. A touch pad is a small pad which is sensitive to touch and movement. Moving your fingertip across the pad moves the mouse pointer in exactly the same direction and distance.

 

The text commands are duplicated by a bar (called a tool bar) of “little pictures”, called icons. Again, these are selected by pointing and clicking. There are usually at least two ways of carrying out the same operation. For example, a document can be printed by selecting either the Print command from a pull down menu or the print icon (a little picture of a printer).

 

There are a number of different devices used to store data, eg:

 

• a hard disk drive;
• a floppy disk drive;
• a CD-Rom;
• a tape drive.

 

Stand alone computers will store the data on a hard drive whose capacity is measured in either mega-bytes (= one million characters) or, nowadays, giga-bytes ( one billion characters). A byte is one character. This will be the main data store, which is identified as the “c: drive” by the computer.

 

Computers also give users the option of storing data on a floppy disk. The first disks in common use measured 5¼ inches in diameter. They just consisted of a thin, floppy plastic disk. These have now been replaced by disks which are 3 1/2 inches across but are now held in a rigid plastic case. However, they are still called “floppies”. Floppy disks go inside an external disk drive known as the “a:drive”.

 

CD-Roms are increasingly used to store information, though at the moment many are read-only. The user cannot edit the information stored on them or add anything new. Software and clipart are often stored on a CD-Rom. Magnetic tapes in a small cartridge are used to back up, ie make a copy, of the information on a computer’s hard drive.

 

 

Word processing

 

Word processing software allows text and other characters (eg numbers) to be processed and presented. A wide variety of fonts (type faces) can be used. These can be displayed in a number of styles, eg underlined, italic.

 

The look of any part of the document can be changed by altering:

 

• the margins;
• the spacing between lines;
• the spacing between characters.

 

Once text has been input, it can be edited, eg copied, pasted or deleted. Word processing software has a range of more specialist functions, eg

 

• search and replace;
• mail merge.

 

It is possible to search for and replace particular pieces of text. For example, if the wrong name has been keyed into a document it can be automatically replaced with the right one, at every point where it appears.

Mail merge links fields in a database with a word processor file. Word processing software is used to create a template. This contains the standard document (eg confirming an order) which will be sent to many people or organisations.

 

There will be gaps in the text that will be filled by information from the database file (see page 29). This will store the individual details (eg addresses) of each of the people or organisations to whom the document may be sent. The computer can then print out a number of separate letters.

 

Modern word processing software will also allow a range of different ways of presentinginformation to be included in a document, eg charts, tables and graphics.

 

In the Office Applications examinations, candidates will be expected to extend abbreviations. Some examples of these can be found on page 33.

 

EXAMPLES OF COMMON ABBREVIATIONS

 

This list is neither prescriptive nor exhaustive

 

accom	accommodation
a/c(s)	account(s)
ack	acknowledge
advert(s)	advertisement (s)
appt(s)	appointment(s)
approx	approximately
Apr	April
attn	attention
Aug	August
Ave	Avenue
bel	believe
bus	business
cat(s)	catalogue(s)
cttee(s)	committee(s)
co(s)	company/ies
Cres	Crescent
Dec	December
def	definite/ly
dev	develop
Dr	Drive
ex	exercise
exp(s)	expense(s)
exp	experience
Feb	February
ffly	faithfully
Fri	Friday
gov(s)	government(s)
gntee(s)	guarantee(s)
immed	immediate/ly
incon	inconvenient/ience
Jan	January
Jul	July
Jun	June
mfr(s)	manufacturer(s)
misc	miscellaneous
Mon	Monday
necy	necessary
Nov	November
Oct	October
opp(s)	opportunity/ies
rec(s)	receipt(s)
rec	receive
recd	received
recom	recommend
ref(s)	reference(s)
refd	referred
resp	responsible
Rd	Road
Sat	Saturday
sec(s)	secretary/ies
sep	separate
Sept	September
sig(s)	signature(s)
sinc	sincerely
St	Street
suff	sufficient
Sun	Sunday
temp	temporary
thro	through
Thurs	Thursday
Tues	Tuesday
Sh	shall
shd	should
Wed	Wednesday
wh	which
wd	would
wl	will
w	with
yr(s)	year(s)
yr(s)	your(s)

 

 

Spreadsheets are used to store and process numbers and text, perform calculations and create charts. They are often used to prepare financial documents.

 

A spreadsheet consists of columns going up and down and rows going across. Columns are usually lettered and rows are numbered. This creates a grid made up of a number of cells into which data, etc. is keyed.

 

This can comprise:

 

• numbers;
• labels;
• formulae.

 

Numbers which have been entered into a cell can be displayed in a number of formats, eg as a date, a currency, an integer (whole number).

 

Labels are usually text which is used for titles or headings. Formulae act as instructions to carry out calculations using the numbers already keyed into the spreadsheet. The calculations can be simple, eg multiplying two numbers or more complex, eg working out averages.

 

Just as with a word processing package, a wide variety of fonts and styles can be used. Information in cells can be edited or copied and pasted into other cells (sometimes called replication), or deleted. Graphics can also be used to shade in cells, draw borders, etc.

 

The design of the spreadsheet can be changed by:

 

• inserting or deleting rows or columns;
• changing the width of columns or the height of rows.

 

Spreadsheeting software can be used to carry out a range of more specialist activities, eg

 

• “what if’ calculations;
• goal seeking calculations.

 

“What if’ calculations ask the spreadsheet to calculate the effect of changing one of the numbers in a calculation. For example:

Costs of production            = £100 000
Revenue from sales     = £120 000
Profit    = £??? ???

 

A formula can then be used to work out the profit. An example of a “what if’ analysis would be, “What would be the effect on profits if costs increased to £110 000?” On the other hand, the spreadsheet could be used to find out what increase in sales would be necessary for profits to be doubled? This is goal seeking.

 

Obviously, in the real world, an organisation would be dealing with a much more complex spreadsheet.

 

The data stores in a spreadsheet can be used to create a chart. Modem charting packages can be used to create a variety of different types of charts.

 

• column; charts
• line; charts
• pie charts

 

Column charts show data as vertical bars, one bar for each number in a data series. A data series will be either a row or a column of data on the spreadsheet. Column charts can only show a limited number of data series. It is a useful way of comparing the importance of a fairly small number of events at different dates, eg the number of candidates entered for GCSEs in Business Studies and in Information Technology in each year between 1994 and 1996. They can also be used to present a number of different types of information.

 

Line charts show changes in a number of data series, usually over a period of time, eg changes in population of the United Kingdom over the last 500 years. They are useful for showing and comparing trends in a number of data series.

 

Pie charts can only be used to show the component parts of one data series, eg the percentage of male and female candidates in the total entry for Office Applications GCSE in one year.

 

Charts can present information in either a 2 dimensional (2D) or 3 dimensional (3D) format. 2D charts are simpler to understand but 3D types are often more interesting to look at. So 3D charts are often used if the data is easy to understand and it is important to grab someone’s interest. However, if the data are complex, it is better to use a 2D chart.

 

 

Database processing

 

Database files are structured stores of information. The data stored in them is organised into:

 

• fields;
• records.

 

The information is stored in fields, with each field having its own name (heading). The information in any one field is just concerned with one narrow topic. For example, a data file which has been created to store information about the members of an Office Applications group might have the following fields.

 

A possible field name is also shown.

 

• Student’s first name = 1Name
• Student’s surname = Sname
• Tutor’s name = Tname
• Examination result = Exam
• text, or alphabetic, eg name;
• number or numeric, eg examination number;
• alphanumeric, eg address;
• date, eg date of birth.

 

The complete collection of information about one person, consisting of their entry in each field, would be a record. This record is a collection of information on a subject (ie a member of a teaching group). However, the subject can be a place, an activity, an organisation; the list of possibilities is almost endless!

 

One of the main advantages of a database file is that the data can be processed. This re­organises the records so that they can be analysed more effectively. There are two ways of doing this:

 

• Changing the order of the records by sorting the information in a particular field, eg alphabetically or numerically;
• Selecting only those records which match a particular query (question).

 

Using a query can be quite complicated as the “question” must be carefully chosen. Suppose you wish to find out which students in the Office Applications group gained more than 50% in their examination, your query will need to do the following:

 

• identify the field storing the information which is the subject of the question, ie Exam;
• identify what test is going to be used, ie Greater than;
• identify what value it has got to be greater than, ie 50%.

 

Print outs from database files should usually be in report format with at least a main title and the field names shown.

 

The design of a database file can be changed by inserting or deleting fields or records. Again, a variety of fonts (type faces) and styles can be used. Information can be edited or copied and pasted into other records or deleted.

 

If a data base is going to be of any value it is vitally important that data is collected using a carefully designed data capture sheet. Often this takes the form of a questionnaire.

 

The first step is to draw up simple questions that are either instantly understood or capable of being quickly explained. People are usually offered a menu of possible answers to choose from for each question. It is important to spend time preparing both the questions and the answers. Usually there should only be one answer to each question. The answers to each question will be stores in a separate field in the database, as outline above.

 

It is important to be able to match all the answers given by one person together, as this will form one record in the database. One way of doing this is to provide response boxes on the questionnaire. These should be lined up in columns so that one person’s responses are shown in one vertical line, allowing each record to be easily identified.

 

Graphics software can be used to:

 

• draw lines;
• draw shapes;
• create text.

 

Lines can be drawn in a variety of widths and can be continuous or broken in various ways (eg dashes, dots). They can be free-hand, curved or straight. Shapes can be rectangular, circular, oval or free-hand. They can be empty or filled with a pattern. A wide variety of fonts (typefaces) can be used in a large range of sizes. These can be presented in a number of styles, eg underlined, italic, shaded. Graphics software also gives you the chance to use colour in different ways.

 

One of the most important advantages of graphics software is the ability to change the shape of:

 

• a block of text;
• a graphic object.

 

Usually, the text produced by a computer will fit between two parallel lines. With a graphics package, it is possible to alter these lines so that they move either closer or wider apart. They do not even have to be straight but could form a wave or circular shape.

 

Parts of the drawing can also be changed in a number of ways:

 

• re-sized, changing the size;
• re-shaped, changing the shape by altering the height by a greater or smaller amount than the length;
• rotated so that it is turned over partly or completely;
• cropped by deleting part of the drawing.

 

 

Desktop publishing software (DTP)

 

Desktop publishing software allows text and graphics to be created, combined, processed and presented. However, you may prefer to create the text or graphics using dedicated word processing or graphics software. DTP software may not have the same range of facilities as dedicated software.

 

DTP software will have very powerful page layout facilities. It is best to set up a page as a number of boxes. Text or graphics can then be copied and pasted into these boxes.

 

It is possible to alter the page design by:

 

• deleting or adding boxes;
• moving boxes;
• re-sizing boxes (changing the size);
• re-shaping boxes (changing the shape).

 

A page design can be set up as a template if you wish to have a number of pages that follow the same design. For example, the same logo may be included at the top of each page. Modern DTP software usually includes a number of suggested page layout files.